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Albert Einstein

2011-02-17T06:27:00.000-08:00

Albert Einstein

14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who discovered the theory of general relativity, effecting a revolution in physics. For this achievement, Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physics.[2] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".[3]

Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led to the development of his special theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the general theory of relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole.[4]

He escaped from Nazi Germany in 1933, where he had been a professor at the Berlin Academy of Sciences, and settled in the U.S., becoming a citizen in 1940. On the eve of World War II, he helped alert President Franklin D. Roosevelt that Germany might be developing an atomic weapon, and recommended that the U.S. begin nuclear research. That research, begun by a newly-established Manhattan Project, resulted in the U.S. becoming the first and only country to possess nuclear weapons during the war. He taught physics at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955.

Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works, and received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities;[4] he also wrote about various philosophical and political subjects such as socialism, international relations and the existence of God.[5] His great intelligence and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with genius.[6]
Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire on 14 March 1879.[7] His father was Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer. His mother was Pauline Einstein (née Koch). In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where his father and his uncle founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current.[7]

The Einsteins were non-observant Jews. Their son attended a Catholic elementary school from the age of five until ten.[8] Although Einstein had early speech difficulties, he was a top student in elementary school.[9][10]

His father once showed him a pocket compass; Einstein realized that there must be something causing the needle to move, despite the apparent "empty space".[11] As he grew, Einstein built models and mechanical devices for fun and began to show a talent for mathematics.[7] In 1889, Max Talmud (later changed to Max Talmey) introduced the ten-year old Einstein to key texts in science, mathematics and philosophy, including Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Euclid's Elements (which Einstein called the "holy little geometry book").[12] Talmud was a poor Jewish medical student from Poland. The Jewish community arranged for Talmud to take meals with the Einsteins each week on Thursdays for six years. During this time Talmud wholeheartedly guided Einstein through many secular educational interests.[13][14]

In 1894, his father's company failed: direct current (DC) lost the War of Currents to alternating current (AC). In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and then, a few months later, to Pavia. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium (see de:Albert-Einstein-Gymnasium München). His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in strict rote learning. In the spring of 1895, he withdrew to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note.[7] During this time, Einstein wrote his first scientific work, "The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields".[15]

Einstein applied directly to the Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule (ETH) in Zurich, Switzerland. Lacking the requisite Matura certificate, he took an entrance examination, which he failed, although he got exceptional marks in mathematics and physics.[16] The Einsteins sent Albert to Aarau, in northern Switzerland to finish secondary school.[7] While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (His sister Maja later married the Wintelers' son, Paul.)[17] In Aarau, Einstein studied Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. At age 17, he graduated, and, with his father's approval, renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid military service, and in 1896 he enrolled in the four year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Polytechnic in Zurich. Marie Winteler moved to Olsberg, Switzerland for a teaching post.

Einstein's future wife, Mileva Marić, also enrolled at the Polytechnic that same year, the only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein and Marić's friendship developed into romance, and they read books together on extra-curricular physics in which Einstein was taking an increasing interest. In 1900 Einstein was awarded the Zurich Polytechnic teaching diploma, but Marić failed the examination with a poor grade in the mathematics component, theory of functions.[18] There have been claims that Marić collaborated with Einstein on his celebrated 1905 papers,[19][20] but historians of physics who have studied the issue find no evidence that she made any substantive contributions.[21][22][23][24]

In early 1902, Einstein and Mileva Marić had a daughter they named Lieserl in their correspondence, who was born in Novi Sad where Marić's parents lived.[25] Her full name is not known, and her fate is uncertain after 1903.[26]

Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, the couple's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their second son, Eduard, was born in Zurich in July 1910. In 1914, Einstein moved to Berlin, while his wife remained in Zurich with their sons. Marić and Einstein divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years.

Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal (née Einstein) on 2 June 1919, after having had a relationship with her since 1912. She was his first cousin maternally and his second cousin paternally. In 1933, they emigrated permanently to the United States. In 1935, Elsa Einstein was diagnosed with heart a

After graduating, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post, but a former classmate's father helped him secure a job in Bern, at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property, the patent office, as an assistant examiner.[28] He evaluated patent applications for electromagnetic devices. In 1903, Einstein's position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".[29]

Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time.[30]

With a few friends he met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group, self-mockingly named "The Olympia Academy", which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Their readings included the works of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook.

In 1901, Einstein had a paper on the capillary forces of a straw published in the prestigious Annalen der Physik.[31] On 30 April 1905, he completed his thesis, with Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as pro-forma advisor. Einstein was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. His dissertation was entitled "A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions".[32] That same year, which has been called Einstein's annus mirabilis or "miracle year", he published four groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of matter and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world.

By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist, and he was appointed lecturer at the University of Berne. The following year, he quit the patent office and the lectureship to take the position of physics docent[33] at the University of Zurich. He became a full professor at Karl-Ferdinand University in Prague in 1911. In 1914, he returned to Germany after being appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics (1914–1932)[34] and a professor at the Humboldt University of Berlin, although with a special clause in his contract that freed him from most teaching obligations. He became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. In 1916, Einstein was appointed president of the German Physical Society (1916–1918).[35][36]

In 1911, he had calculated that, based on his new theory of general relativity, light from another star would be bent by the Sun's gravity. That prediction was claimed confirmed by observations made by a British expedition led by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of May 29, 1919. International media reports of this made Einstein world famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper The Times printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".[37] (Much later, questions were raised whether the measurements were accurate enough to support Einstein's theory.)

In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Because relativity was still considered somewhat controversial, it was officially bestowed for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925.
Travels abroad

Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921, where he received an official welcome by the Mayor, followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions. He went on to deliver several lectures at Colombia University and Princeton University, and in Washington he accompanied representatives of the National Academy of Science on a visit to the White House. On his return to Europe he was the guest of the British statesman and philosopher Viscount Haldane in London, where he met several renowned scientific, intellectual and political figures, and delivered a lecture at Kings College.[38]

In 1922, he traveled throughout Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour. His travels included Singapore, Ceylon, and Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. His first lecture in Tokyo lasted four hours, after which he met the emperor and empress at the Imperial Palace where thousands came to watch. Einstein later gave his impressions of the Japanese in a letter to his sons:[39]:307 "Of all the people I have met, I like the Japanese most, as they are modest, intelligent, considerate, and have a feel for art."[39]:308

On his return voyage, he also visited Palestine for twelve days in what would become his only visit to that region. "He was greeted with great British pomp, as if he were a head of state rather than a theoretical physicist", writes Isaacson. This included a cannon salute upon his arrival at the residence of the British high commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel. During one reception given to him, the building was "stormed by throngs who wanted to hear him". In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed his happiness over the event:

I consider this the greatest day of my life. Before, I have always found something to regret in the Jewish soul, and that is the forgetfulness of its own people. Today, I have been made happy by the sight of the Jewish people learning to recognize themselves and to make themselves recognized as a force in the world.[40]:308

In 1933, Einstein decided to emigrate to the United States due to the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler.[41] While visiting American universities in April, 1933, he learned that the new German government had passed a law barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities. A month later, the Nazi book burnings occurred, with Einstein's works being among those burnt, and Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaimed, "Jewish intellectualism is dead."[40] Einstein also learned that his name was on a list of assassination targets, with a "$5,000 bounty on his head". One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged".[40]

Einstein was undertaking his third two-month visiting professorship at CalTech in California when Hitler came to power in Germany. On his return to Europe in March 1933 he resided in Belgium for some months, before temporarily moving to England.[42] Royal Navy commander Oliver Locker-Lampson provided hospitality and temporary armed protection to Einstein at his home in Norfolk, England, before Einstein left for the United States in October 1933.[43] He was guarded by Locker-Lampson and others, all armed with rifles in case the Germans came looking for Einstein. Locker-Lampson spoke fluent German and is thought to have met Einstein at a lecture in Oxford, after which they began exchanging letters and political views. He was an outspoken opponent of the Nazi persecution of Jews [44][45] and some have considered his other efforts, such as helping Sigmund Freud,[46] "exceptional in how he saved Jews from Germany." [47]

Other German scientists fled as well, among them fourteen Nobel laureates and twenty-six of the sixty professors of theoretical physics in the country. The scientists who left Germany or the countries it came to dominate included Edward Teller, Niels Bohr, Enrico Fermi, Otto Stern, Victor Weisskopf, Hans Bethe, and Lise Meitner, many of whom played a large part in the Allies developing nuclear weapons before the Nazis.[40] With so many other Jewish scientists now forced by circumstances to live in America, often working side by side, Einstein wrote to a friend, "For me the most beautiful thing is to be in contact with a few fine Jews—a few millennia of a civilized past do mean something after all." In another letter he writes, "In my whole life I have never felt so Jewish as now."[40]

He took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey,[48] an affiliation that lasted until his death in 1955. There, he tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, both unsuccessfully. He and Kurt Gödel, another Institute member, became close friends. They would take long walks together discussing their work. His last assistant was Bruria Kaufman, who later became a renowned physicist.
World War II and the Manhattan Project

In the summer of 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II, Einstein was persuaded to write a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt and warn him that Nazi Germany might be developing an atomic bomb. The letter, dictated by Einstein,[39]:630 and translated with the help of Hungarian emigre physicist Leo Szilard, gave the letter more prestige, with Einstein also recommending that the U.S. begin uranium enrichment and nuclear research. According to F.G. Gosling of the U.S. Department of Energy, Einstein, Szilard, and other refugees including Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon."[49]

British columnist Ambrose Evans-Pritchard notes, however, that Washington at first "brushed off with disbelief" the fears they expressed. He then describes how quickly Roosevelt changed his mind:

Albert Einstein interceded through the Belgian queen mother, eventually getting a personal envoy into the Oval Office. Roosevelt initially fobbed him off. He listened more closely at a second meeting over breakfast the next day, then made up his mind within minutes. "This needs action," he told his military aide. It was the birth of the Manhattan Project.[50]

Gosling adds that "the President was a man of considerable action once he had chosen a direction," and believed that the U.S. "could not take the risk of allowing Hitler" to possess nuclear bombs.[49] Other weapons historians agree that the letter was "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II". As a result of Einstein's letter, and his meetings with Roosevelt, the U.S. entered the "race" to develop the bomb first, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources". It became the only country to develop an atomic bomb during World War II as a result of its Manhattan Project.[51]

However, according to historian Fritz Stern, for Einstein, "war was a disease . . . [and] he called for resistance to war." But in 1933, after Hitler assumed full power in Germany, "he renounced pacifism altogether . . . In fact, he urged the Western powers to prepare themselves against another German onslaught."[52]:110 In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, "I made one great mistake in my life — when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification — the danger that the Germans would make them..."[53]

Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at Princeton, he expressed his appreciation of the "meritocracy" in American culture when compared to Europe. According to Isaacson, he recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased", without social barriers, and as result, the individual was "encouraged" to be more creative, a trait he valued from his own early education. Einstein writes:

What makes the new arrival devoted to this country is the democratic trait among the people. No one humbles himself before another person or class. . . American youth has the good fortune not to have its outlook troubled by outworn traditions.[40]:432

As a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People NAACP at Princeton who campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans, Einstein corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois, and in 1946 Einstein called racism America's "worst disease".[54] He later stated, "Race prejudice has unfortunately become an American tradition which is uncritically handed down from one generation to the next. The only remedies are enlightenment and education".[55]

After the death of Israel's first president, Chaim Weizmann, in November 1952, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the position of President of Israel, a mostly ceremonial post.[56] The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons".[39]:522 However, Einstein declined, and wrote in his response that he was "deeply moved", and "at once saddened and ashamed" that he could not accept it:

All my life I have dealt with objective matters, hence I lack both the natural aptitude and the experience to deal properly with people and to exercise official function. I am the more distressed over these circumstances because my relationship with the Jewish people became my strongest human tie once I achieved complete clarity about our precarious position among the nations of the world.[39]:522 [56][57]

On April 17, 1955, Albert Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Dr. Rudolph Nissen in 1948.[58] He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.[59] Einstein refused surgery, saying: "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."[60] He died in Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end.

Einstein's remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.[61][62] During the autopsy, the pathologist of Princeton Hospital, Thomas Stoltz Harvey, removed Einstein's brain for preservation, without the permission of his family, in hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.[63] In his lecture at Einstein's memorial, nuclear physicist Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of him as a person:

"He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness . . . There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn."[52]

Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. Most were about physics, but a few expressed leftist political opinions about pacifism, socialism, and zionism.[5][7] In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and others.[64]
Annus Mirabilis papers
Main article: Annus Mirabilis papers

Einstein's early papers all come from attempts to demonstrate that atoms exist and have a finite nonzero size. At the time of his first paper in 1902, it was not yet completely accepted by physicists that atoms were real, even though chemists had good evidence ever since Antoine Lavoisier's work a century earlier. The reason physicists were skeptical was because no 19th century theory could fully explain the properties of matter from the properties of atoms.

Ludwig Boltzmann was a leading 19th century atomist physicist, who had struggled for years to gain acceptance for atoms. Boltzmann had given an interpretation of the laws of thermodynamics, suggesting that the law of entropy increase is statistical. In Boltzmann's way of thinking, the entropy is the logarithm of the number of ways a system could be configured inside. The reason the entropy goes up is only because it is more likely for a system to go from a special state with only a few possible internal configurations to a more generic state with many. While Boltzmann's statistical interpretation of entropy is universally accepted today, and Einstein believed it, at the turn of the 20th century it was a minority position.[citation needed]

The statistical idea was most successful in explaining the properties of gases. James Clerk Maxwell, another leading atomist, had found the distribution of velocities of atoms in a gas, and derived the surprising result that the viscosity of a gas should be independent of density. Intuitively, the friction in a gas would seem to go to zero as the density goes to zero, but this is not so, because the mean free path of atoms becomes large at low densities. A subsequent experiment by Maxwell and his wife confirmed this surprising prediction. Other experiments on gases and vacuum, using a rotating slitted drum, showed that atoms in a gas had velocities distributed according to Maxwell's distribution law.[citation needed]

In addition to these successes, there were also inconsistencies. Maxwell noted that at cold temperatures, atomic theory predicted specific heats that are too large. In classical statistical mechanics, every spring-like motion has thermal energy kBT on average at temperature T, so that the specific heat of every spring is Boltzmann's constant kB. A monatomic solid with N atoms can be thought of as N little balls representing N atoms attached to each other in a box grid with 3N springs, so the specific heat of every solid is 3NkB, a result which became known as the Dulong–Petit law. This law is true at room temperature, but not for colder temperatures. At temperatures near zero, the specific heat goes to zero.

Similarly, a gas made up of a molecule with two atoms can be thought of as two balls on a spring. This spring has energy kBT at high temperatures, and should contribute an extra kB to the specific heat. It does at temperatures of about 1000 degrees, but at lower temperature, this contribution disappears. At zero temperature, all other contributions to the specific heat from rotations and vibrations also disappear. This behavior was inconsistent with classical physics.

The most glaring inconsistency was in the theory of light waves. Continuous waves in a box can be thought of as infinitely many spring-like motions, one for each possible standing wave. Each standing wave has a specific heat of kB, so the total specific heat of a continuous wave like light should be infinite in classical mechanics. This is obviously wrong, because it would mean that all energy in the universe would be instantly sucked up into light waves, and everything would slow down and stop.

These inconsistencies led some people to say that atoms were not physical, but mathematical. Notable among the skeptics was Ernst Mach, whose positivist philosophy led him to demand that if atoms are real, it should be possible to see them directly.[65] Mach believed that atoms were a useful fiction, that in reality they could be assumed to be infinitesimally small, that Avogadro's number was infinite, or so large that it might as well be infinite, and kB was infinitesimally small. Certain experiments could then be explained by atomic theory, but other experiments could not, and this is the way it will always be.

Einstein opposed this position. Throughout his career, he was a realist. He believed that a single consistent theory should explain all observations, and that this theory would be a description of what was really going on, underneath it all. So he set out to show that the atomic point of view was correct. This led him first to thermodynamics, then to statistical physics, and to the theory of specific heats of solids.

In 1905, while he was working in the patent office, the leading German language physics journal Annalen der Physik published four of Einstein's papers. The four papers eventually were recognized as revolutionary, and 1905 became known as Einstein's "Miracle Year", and the papers as the Annus Mirabilis Papers.
Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics
Main article: statistical physics

Einstein's earliest papers were concerned with thermodynamics. He wrote a paper establishing a thermodynamic identity in 1902, and a few other papers which attempted to interpret phenomena from a statistical atomic point of view.

His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena. As in Maxwell's work, the finite nonzero size of atoms leads to effects which can be observed. This research, and the thermodynamic identity, were well within the mainstream of physics in his time. They would eventually form the content of his PhD thesis.[66]

His first major result in this field was the theory of thermodynamic fluctuations. When in equilibrium, a system has a maximum entropy and, according to the statistical interpretation, it can fluctuate a little bit. Einstein pointed out that the statistical fluctuations of a macroscopic object, like a mirror suspended on spring, would be completely determined by the second derivative of the entropy with respect to the position of the mirror.

Searching for ways to test this relation, his great breakthrough came in 1905. The theory of fluctuations, he realized, would have a visible effect for an object which could move around freely. Such an object would have a velocity which is random, and would move around randomly, just like an individual atom. The average kinetic energy of the object would be kBT, and the time decay of the fluctuations would be entirely determined by the law of friction.

The law of friction for a small ball in a viscous fluid like water was discovered by George Stokes. He showed that for small velocities, the friction force would be proportional to the velocity, and to the radius of the particle (see Stokes' law). This relation could be used to calculate how far a small ball in water would travel due to its random thermal motion, and Einstein noted that such a ball, of size about a micrometre, would travel about a few micrometres per second. This motion could be easily detected with a microscope and indeed, as Brownian motion, had actually been observed by the botanist Robert Brown. Einstein was able to identify this motion with that predicted by his theory. Since the fluctuations which give rise to Brownian motion are just the same as the fluctuations of the velocities of atoms, measuring the precise amount of Brownian motion using Einstein's theory would show that Boltzmann's constant is non-zero and would measure Avogadro's number.[citation needed]

These experiments were carried out a few years later by Jean Baptiste Perrin, and gave a rough estimate of Avogadro's number consistent with the more accurate estimates due to Max Planck's theory of blackbody light and Robert Millikan's measurement of the charge of the electron.[67] Unlike the other methods, Einstein's required very few theoretical assumptions or new physics, since it was directly measuring atomic motion on visible grains.

Einstein's theory of Brownian motion was the first paper in the field of statistical physics. It established that thermodynamic fluctuations were related to dissipation. This was shown by Einstein to be true for time-independent fluctuations, but in the Brownian motion paper he showed that dynamical relaxation rates calculated from classical mechanics could be used as statistical relaxation rates to derive dynamical diffusion laws. These relations are known as Einstein relations.

The theory of Brownian motion was the least revolutionary of Einstein's Annus mirabilis papers, but it is the most frequently cited, and had an important role in securing the acceptance of the atomic theory by physicists.
Thought experiments and a-priori physical principles
Main article: Thought experiment

Einstein's thinking underwent a transformation in 1905. He had come to understand that quantum properties of light mean that Maxwell's equations were only an approximation. He knew that new laws would have to replace these, but he did not know how to go about finding those laws. He felt that guessing formal relations would not go anywhere.

So he decided to focus on a-priori principles instead, which are statements about physical laws which can be understood to hold in a very broad sense even in domains where they have not yet been shown to apply. A well accepted example of an a-priori principle is rotational invariance. If a new force is discovered in physics, it is assumed to be rotationally invariant almost automatically, without thought. Einstein sought new principles of this sort, to guide the production of physical ideas. Once enough principles are found, then the new physics will be the simplest theory consistent with the principles and with previously known laws.[citation needed]

The first general a-priori principle he found was the principle of relativity, that uniform motion is indistinguishable from rest. This was understood by Hermann Minkowski to be a generalization of rotational invariance from space to space-time. Other principles postulated by Einstein and later vindicated are the principle of equivalence and the principle of adiabatic invariance of the quantum number. Another of Einstein's general principles, Mach's principle, is fiercely debated, and whether it holds in our world or not is still not definitively established.

The use of a-priori principles is a distinctive unique signature of Einstein's early work, and has become a standard tool in modern theoretical physics.
Special relativity
Main article: History of special relativity

His 1905 paper on the electrodynamics of moving bodies introduced his theory of special relativity, which showed that the observed independence of the speed of light on the observer's state of motion required fundamental changes to the notion of simultaneity. Consequences of this include the time-space frame of a moving body slowing down and contracting (in the direction of motion) relative to the frame of the observer. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether – one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time – was superfluous.[68] In his paper on mass–energy equivalence, which had previously been considered to be distinct concepts, Einstein deduced from his equations of special relativity what has been called the 20th century's best-known equation: E = mc2.[69][70] This equation suggests that tiny amounts of mass could be converted into huge amounts of energy and presaged the development of nuclear power.[71] Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck.[72][73]
Photons
Main article: Photon

In a 1905 paper,[74] Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of Compton scattering.

Einstein's paper on the light particles was almost entirely motivated by thermodynamic considerations. He was not at all motivated by the detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, which did not confirm his theory until fifteen years later. Einstein considers the entropy of light at temperature T, and decomposes it into a low-frequency part and a high-frequency part. The high-frequency part, where the light is described by Wien's law, has an entropy which looks exactly the same as the entropy of a gas of classical particles.

Since the entropy is the logarithm of the number of possible states, Einstein concludes that the number of states of short wavelength light waves in a box with volume V is equal to the number of states of a group of localizable particles in the same box. Since (unlike others) he was comfortable with the statistical interpretation, he confidently postulates that the light itself is made up of localized particles, as this is the only reasonable interpretation of the entropy.

This leads him to conclude that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf each, where h is Planck's constant. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect.[75]
Quantized atomic vibrations
Main article: Einstein solid

Einstein continued his work on quantum mechanics in 1906, by explaining the specific heat anomaly in solids. This was the first application of quantum theory to a mechanical system. Since Planck's distribution for light oscillators had no problem with infinite specific heats, the same idea could be applied to solids to fix the specific heat problem there. Einstein showed in a simple model that the hypothesis that solid motion is quantized explains why the specific heat of a solid goes to zero at zero temperature.[citation needed]

Einstein's model treats each atom as connected to a single spring. Instead of connecting all the atoms to each other, which leads to standing waves with all sorts of different frequencies, Einstein imagined that each atom was attached to a fixed point in space by a spring. This is not physically correct, but it still predicts that the specific heat is 3NkB, since the number of independent oscillations stays the same.

Einstein then assumes that the motion in this model is quantized, according to the Planck law, so that each independent spring motion has energy which is an integer multiple of hf, where f is the frequency of oscillation. With this assumption, he applied Boltzmann's statistical method to calculate the average energy of the spring. The result was the same as the one that Planck had derived for light: for temperatures where kBT is much smaller than hf, the motion is frozen, and the specific heat goes to zero.[citation needed]

So Einstein concluded that quantum mechanics would solve the main problem of classical physics, the specific heat anomaly. The particles of sound implied by this formulation are now called phonons. Because all of Einstein's springs have the same stiffness, they all freeze out at the same temperature, and this leads to a prediction that the specific heat should go to zero exponentially fast when the temperature is low. The solution to this problem is to solve for the independent normal modes individually, and to quantize those. Then each normal mode has a different frequency, and long wavelength vibration modes freeze out at colder temperatures than short wavelength ones. This was done by Peter Debye, and after this modification Einstein's quantization method reproduced quantitatively the behavior of the specific heats of solids at low temperatures.[citation needed]

This work was the foundation of condensed matter physics.
Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables
Main article: Old quantum theory

Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the periodic table of the elements.

Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic invariance of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the blackbody curves at different temperature to be derived from one another by a simple shifting process. Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant. Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic invariant as the action variable of classical mechanics. The law that the action variable is quantized was a basic principle of the quantum theory as it was known between 1900 and 1925.[citation needed]
Wave-particle duality
Main article: Wave-particle duality

Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a privatdozent at the University of Bern.[76] In "über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave-particle duality in quantum mechanics.
Theory of critical opalescence
Main article: Critical opalescence

Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to Raleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.[77]
Zero-point energy
Main article: Zero-point energy

Einstein's physical intuition led him to note that Planck's oscillator energies had an incorrect zero point. He modified Planck's hypothesis by stating that the lowest energy state of an oscillator is equal to 1⁄2hf, to half the energy spacing between levels. This argument, which was made in 1913 in collaboration with Otto Stern, was based on the thermodynamics of a diatomic molecule which can split apart into two free atoms.
Principle of equivalence
Main article: Principle of equivalence

In 1907, while still working at the patent office, Einstein had what he would call his "happiest thought". He realized that the principle of relativity could be extended to gravitational fields. He thought about the case of a uniformly accelerated box not in a gravitational field, and noted that it would be indistinguishable from a box sitting still in an unchanging gravitational field.[78] He used special relativity to see that the rate of clocks at the top of a box accelerating upward would be faster than the rate of clocks at the bottom. He concludes that the rates of clocks depend on their position in a gravitational field, and that the difference in rate is proportional to the gravitational potential to first approximation.

Although this approximation is crude, it allowed him to calculate the deflection of light by gravity, and show that it is nonzero. This gave him confidence that the scalar theory of gravity proposed by Gunnar Nordström was incorrect. But the actual value for the deflection that he calculated was too small by a factor of two, because the approximation he used doesn't work well for things moving at near the speed of light. When Einstein finished the full theory of general relativity, he would rectify this error and predict the correct amount of light deflection by the sun.

From Prague, Einstein published a paper about the effects of gravity on light, specifically the gravitational redshift and the gravitational deflection of light. The paper challenged astronomers to detect the deflection during a solar eclipse.[79] German astronomer Erwin Finlay-Freundlich publicized Einstein's challenge to scientists around the world.[80]

Einstein thought about the nature of the gravitational field in the years 1909–1912, studying its properties by means of simple thought experiments. A notable one is the rotating disk. Einstein imagined an observer making experiments on a rotating turntable. He noted that such an observer would find a different value for the mathematical constant pi than the one predicted by Euclidean geometry. The reason is that the radius of a circle would be measured with an uncontracted ruler, but, according to special relativity, the circumference would seem to be longer because the ruler would be contracted.

Since Einstein believed that the laws of physics were local, described by local fields, he concluded from this that spacetime could be locally curved. This led him to study Riemannian geometry, and to formulate general relativity in this language.
Hole argument and Entwurf theory
Main article: Hole argument

While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations, and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only.

In June, 1913 the Entwurf ("draft") theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. Simultaneously less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, after more than two years of intensive work Einstein abandoned the theory in November, 1915 after realizing that the hole argument was mistaken.[81]
General relativity
See also: History of general relativity

In 1912, Einstein returned to Switzerland to accept a professorship at his alma mater, the ETH. Once back in Zurich, he immediately visited his old ETH classmate Marcel Grossmann, now a professor of mathematics, who introduced him to Riemannian geometry and, more generally, to differential geometry. On the recommendation of Italian mathematician Tullio Levi-Civita, Einstein began exploring the usefulness of general covariance (essentially the use of tensors) for his gravitational theory. For a while Einstein thought that there were problems with the approach, but he later returned to it and, by late 1915, had published his general theory of relativity in the form in which it is used today.[82] This theory explains gravitation as distortion of the structure of spacetime by matter, affecting the inertial motion of other matter. During World War I, the work of Central Powers scientists was available only to Central Powers academics, for national security reasons. Some of Einstein's work did reach the United Kingdom and the United States through the efforts of the Austrian Paul Ehrenfest and physicists in the Netherlands, especially 1902 Nobel Prize-winner Hendrik Lorentz and Willem de Sitter of Leiden University. After the war ended, Einstein maintained his relationship with Leiden University, accepting a contract as an Extraordinary Professor; for ten years, from 1920 to 1930, he travelled to Holland regularly to lecture.[83]

In 1917, several astronomers accepted Einstein 's 1911 challenge from Prague. The Mount Wilson Observatory in California, U.S., published a solar spectroscopic analysis that showed no gravitational redshift.[84] In 1918, the Lick Observatory, also in California, announced that it too had disproved Einstein's prediction, although its findings were not published.[85]

However, in May 1919, a team led by the British astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington claimed to have confirmed Einstein's prediction of gravitational deflection of starlight by the Sun while photographing a solar eclipse with dual expeditions in Sobral, northern Brazil, and Príncipe, a west African island.[80] Nobel laureate Max Born praised general relativity as the "greatest feat of human thinking about nature";[86] fellow laureate Paul Dirac was quoted saying it was "probably the greatest scientific discovery ever made".[87] The international media guaranteed Einstein's global renown.

There have been claims that scrutiny of the specific photographs taken on the Eddington expedition showed the experimental uncertainty to be comparable to the same magnitude as the effect Eddington claimed to have demonstrated, and that a 1962 British expedition concluded that the method was inherently unreliable.[37] The deflection of light during a solar eclipse was confirmed by later, more accurate observations.[88] Some resented the newcomer's fame, notably among some German physicists, who later started the Deutsche Physik (German Physics) movement.[89][90]
Cosmology
Main article: Cosmology

In 1917, Einstein applied the General theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole. He wanted the universe to be eternal and unchanging, but this type of universe is not consistent with relativity. To fix this, Einstein modified the general theory by introducing a new notion, the cosmological constant. With a positive cosmological constant, the universe could be an eternal static sphere[91]

Einstein believed a spherical static universe is philosophically preferred, because it would obey Mach's principle. He had shown that general relativity incorporates Mach's principle to a certain extent in frame dragging by gravitomagnetic fields, but he knew that Mach's idea would not work if space goes on forever. In a closed universe, he believed that Mach's principle would hold.

Mach's principle has generated much controversy over the years.
Modern quantum theory
Main article: Schrödinger equation

In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser.[92] This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work, and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves, which Einstein suggested was the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.
Bose–Einstein statistics
Main article: Bose–Einstein condensation

In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.[93] It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder.[94] Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.[64]
Energy momentum pseudotensor
Main article: Stress-energy-momentum pseudotensor

General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's presecriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason.

Einstein argued that this is true for fundamental reasons, because the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard.

The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and others.
Unified field theory
Main article: Classical unified field theories

Following his research on general relativity, Einstein entered into a series of attempts to generalize his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as another aspect of a single entity. In 1950, he described his "unified field theory" in a Scientific American article entitled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation".[95] Although he continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream developments in physics, most notably the strong and weak nuclear forces, which were not well understood until many years after his death. Mainstream physics, in turn, largely ignored Einstein's approaches to unification. Einstein's dream of unifying other laws of physics with gravity motivates modern quests for a theory of everything and in particular string theory, where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting.
Wormholes
Main article: Wormhole

Einstein collaborated with others to produce a model of a wormhole. His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches.

If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way.
Einstein–Cartan theory
Main article: Einstein–Cartan theory

In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.
Equations of motion
Main article: Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations

The theory of general relativity has a fundamental law – the Einstein equations which describe how space curves, the geodesic equation which describes how particles move may be derived from the Einstein equations.

Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein equations themselves, not by a new law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic from general relativity itself.

This was established by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by Roy Kerr for spinning objects.
Einstein's controversial beliefs in physics

In addition to his well-accepted results, some of Einstein's views are regarded as controversial:

* In the special relativity paper (in 1905), Einstein noted that, given a specific definition of the word "force" (a definition which he later agreed was not advantageous), and if we choose to maintain (by convention) the equation mass x acceleration = force, then one arrives at \scriptstyle m/(1 - v^2/c^2) as the expression for the transverse mass of a fast moving particle. This differs from the accepted expression today, because, as noted in the footnotes to Einstein's paper added in the 1913 reprint, "it is more to the point to define force in such a way that the laws of energy and momentum assume the simplest form", as was done, for example, by Max Planck in 1906, who gave the now familiar expression \scriptstyle m/\sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2} for the transverse mass. As Miller points out, this is equivalent to the transverse mass predictions of both Einstein and Lorentz. Einstein had commented already in the 1905 paper that "With a different definition of force and acceleration, we should naturally obtain other expressions for the masses. This shows that in comparing different theories... we must proceed very cautiously." [96]
* Einstein published (in 1922) a qualitative theory of superconductivity based on the vague idea of electrons shared in orbits. This paper predated modern quantum mechanics, and today is regarded as being incorrect. The current theory of low temperature superconductivity was only worked out in 1957, thirty years after the establishing of modern quantum mechanics. However, even today, superconductivity is not well understood, and alternative theories continue to be put forward, especially to account for high-temperature superconductors.[citation needed]
* After introducing the concept of gravitational waves in 1917, Einstein subsequently entertained doubts about whether they could be physically realized. In 1937 he published a paper saying that the focusing properties of geodesics in general relativity would lead to an instability which causes plane gravitational waves to collapse in on themselves. While this is true to a certain extent in some limits, because gravitational instabilities can lead to a concentration of energy density into black holes, for plane waves of the type Einstein and Rosen considered in their paper, the instabilities are under control. Einstein retracted this position a short time later.[citation needed]
* Einstein denied several times that black holes could form. In 1939 he published a paper that argues that a star collapsing would spin faster and faster, spinning at the speed of light with infinite energy well before the point where it is about to collapse into a black hole. This paper received no citations, and the conclusions are well understood to be wrong. Einstein's argument itself is inconclusive, since he only shows that stable spinning objects have to spin faster and faster to stay stable before the point where they collapse. But it is well understood today (and was understood well by some even then) that collapse cannot happen through stationary states the way Einstein imagined. Nevertheless, the extent to which the models of black holes in classical general relativity correspond to physical reality remains unclear, and in particular the implications of the central singularity implicit in these models are still not understood. Efforts to conclusively prove the existence of event horizons have still not been successful.[citation needed]
* Closely related to his rejection of black holes, Einstein believed that the exclusion of singularities might restrict the class of solutions of the field equations so as to force solutions compatible with quantum mechanics, but no such theory has ever been found.[citation needed]
* In the early days of quantum mechanics, Einstein tried to show that the uncertainty principle was not valid, but by 1927 he had become convinced that it was valid.[citation needed]
* In the EPR paper, Einstein argued that quantum mechanics cannot be a complete realistic and local representation of phenomena, given specific definitions of "realism", "locality", and "completeness". The modern consensus is that Einstein's concept of realism is too restrictive.[citation needed]
* Einstein himself considered the introduction of the cosmological term in his 1917 paper founding cosmology as a "blunder".[97] The theory of general relativity predicted an expanding or contracting universe, but Einstein wanted a universe which is an unchanging three dimensional sphere, like the surface of a three dimensional ball in four dimensions. He wanted this for philosophical reasons, so as to incorporate Mach's principle in a reasonable way. He stabilized his solution by introducing a cosmological constant, and when the universe was shown to be expanding, he retracted the constant as a blunder. This is not really much of a blunder – the cosmological constant is necessary within general relativity as it is currently understood, and it is widely believed to have a nonzero value today.
* Einstein did not immediately appreciate the value of Minkowski's four-dimensional formulation of special relativity, although within a few years he had adopted it as the basis for his theory of gravitation.[citation needed]
* Finding it too formal, Einstein believed that Heisenberg's matrix mechanics was incorrect. He changed his mind when Schrödinger and others demonstrated that the formulation in terms of the Schrödinger equation, based on Einstein's wave-particle duality was equivalent to Heisenberg's matrices.[citation needed]

Collaboration with other scientists

In addition to long time collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.
Einstein-de Haas experiment
Main article: Einstein-de Haas effect

Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a torsion pendulum. They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron's angular momentum changes as the magnetization changes. This experiment needed to be sensitive, because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small, but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization.
Schrödinger gas model

Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a Bose–Einstein gas by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number of particles in it.

This formulation is a form of second quantization, but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.[98]
Einstein refrigerator
Main article: Einstein refrigerator

In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.[99] On 11 November 1930, U.S. Patent 1,781,541 was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, as the most promising of their patents were quickly bought up by the Swedish company Electrolux to protect its refrigeration technology from competition.[100]
Modern quantum theory
Main article: Schrödinger equation

In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser.[92] This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work, and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves, which Einstein suggested was the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.
Bose–Einstein statistics
Main article: Bose–Einstein condensation

In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.[93] It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder.[94] Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.[64]
Energy momentum pseudotensor
Main article: Stress-energy-momentum pseudotensor

General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's presecriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason.

Einstein argued that this is true for fundamental reasons, because the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard.

The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and others.
Unified field theory
Main article: Classical unified field theories

Following his research on general relativity, Einstein entered into a series of attempts to generalize his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as another aspect of a single entity. In 1950, he described his "unified field theory" in a Scientific American article entitled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation".[95] Although he continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream developments in physics, most notably the strong and weak nuclear forces, which were not well understood until many years after his death. Mainstream physics, in turn, largely ignored Einstein's approaches to unification. Einstein's dream of unifying other laws of physics with gravity motivates modern quests for a theory of everything and in particular string theory, where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting.
Wormholes
Main article: Wormhole

Einstein collaborated with others to produce a model of a wormhole. His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches.

If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way.
Einstein–Cartan theory
Main article: Einstein–Cartan theory

In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.
Equations of motion
Main article: Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations

The theory of general relativity has a fundamental law – the Einstein equations which describe how space curves, the geodesic equation which describes how particles move may be derived from the Einstein equations.

Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein equations themselves, not by a new law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic from general relativity itself.

This was established by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by Roy Kerr for spinning objects.
Einstein's controversial beliefs in physics

In addition to his well-accepted results, some of Einstein's views are regarded as controversial:

* In the special relativity paper (in 1905), Einstein noted that, given a specific definition of the word "force" (a definition which he later agreed was not advantageous), and if we choose to maintain (by convention) the equation mass x acceleration = force, then one arrives at \scriptstyle m/(1 - v^2/c^2) as the expression for the transverse mass of a fast moving particle. This differs from the accepted expression today, because, as noted in the footnotes to Einstein's paper added in the 1913 reprint, "it is more to the point to define force in such a way that the laws of energy and momentum assume the simplest form", as was done, for example, by Max Planck in 1906, who gave the now familiar expression \scriptstyle m/\sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2} for the transverse mass. As Miller points out, this is equivalent to the transverse mass predictions of both Einstein and Lorentz. Einstein had commented already in the 1905 paper that "With a different definition of force and acceleration, we should naturally obtain other expressions for the masses. This shows that in comparing different theories... we must proceed very cautiously." [96]
* Einstein published (in 1922) a qualitative theory of superconductivity based on the vague idea of electrons shared in orbits. This paper predated modern quantum mechanics, and today is regarded as being incorrect. The current theory of low temperature superconductivity was only worked out in 1957, thirty years after the establishing of modern quantum mechanics. However, even today, superconductivity is not well understood, and alternative theories continue to be put forward, especially to account for high-temperature superconductors.[citation needed]
* After introducing the concept of gravitational waves in 1917, Einstein subsequently entertained doubts about whether they could be physically realized. In 1937 he published a paper saying that the focusing properties of geodesics in general relativity would lead to an instability which causes plane gravitational waves to collapse in on themselves. While this is true to a certain extent in some limits, because gravitational instabilities can lead to a concentration of energy density into black holes, for plane waves of the type Einstein and Rosen considered in their paper, the instabilities are under control. Einstein retracted this position a short time later.[citation needed]
* Einstein denied several times that black holes could form. In 1939 he published a paper that argues that a star collapsing would spin faster and faster, spinning at the speed of light with infinite energy well before the point where it is about to collapse into a black hole. This paper received no citations, and the conclusions are well understood to be wrong. Einstein's argument itself is inconclusive, since he only shows that stable spinning objects have to spin faster and faster to stay stable before the point where they collapse. But it is well understood today (and was understood well by some even then) that collapse cannot happen through stationary states the way Einstein imagined. Nevertheless, the extent to which the models of black holes in classical general relativity correspond to physical reality remains unclear, and in particular the implications of the central singularity implicit in these models are still not understood. Efforts to conclusively prove the existence of event horizons have still not been successful.[citation needed]
* Closely related to his rejection of black holes, Einstein believed that the exclusion of singularities might restrict the class of solutions of the field equations so as to force solutions compatible with quantum mechanics, but no such theory has ever been found.[citation needed]
* In the early days of quantum mechanics, Einstein tried to show that the uncertainty principle was not valid, but by 1927 he had become convinced that it was valid.[citation needed]
* In the EPR paper, Einstein argued that quantum mechanics cannot be a complete realistic and local representation of phenomena, given specific definitions of "realism", "locality", and "completeness". The modern consensus is that Einstein's concept of realism is too restrictive.[citation needed]
* Einstein himself considered the introduction of the cosmological term in his 1917 paper founding cosmology as a "blunder".[97] The theory of general relativity predicted an expanding or contracting universe, but Einstein wanted a universe which is an unchanging three dimensional sphere, like the surface of a three dimensional ball in four dimensions. He wanted this for philosophical reasons, so as to incorporate Mach's principle in a reasonable way. He stabilized his solution by introducing a cosmological constant, and when the universe was shown to be expanding, he retracted the constant as a blunder. This is not really much of a blunder – the cosmological constant is necessary within general relativity as it is currently understood, and it is widely believed to have a nonzero value today.
* Einstein did not immediately appreciate the value of Minkowski's four-dimensional formulation of special relativity, although within a few years he had adopted it as the basis for his theory of gravitation.[citation needed]
* Finding it too formal, Einstein believed that Heisenberg's matrix mechanics was incorrect. He changed his mind when Schrödinger and others demonstrated that the formulation in terms of the Schrödinger equation, based on Einstein's wave-particle duality was equivalent to Heisenberg's matrices.[citation needed]

Collaboration with other scientists

In addition to long time collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.
Einstein-de Haas experiment
Main article: Einstein-de Haas effect

Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a torsion pendulum. They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron's angular momentum changes as the magnetization changes. This experiment needed to be sensitive, because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small, but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization.
Schrödinger gas model

Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a Bose–Einstein gas by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number of particles in it.

This formulation is a form of second quantization, but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.[98]
Einstein refrigerator
Main article: Einstein refrigerator

In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.[99] On 11 November 1930, U.S. Patent 1,781,541 was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, as the most promising of their patents were quickly bought up by the Swedish company Electrolux to protect its refrigeration technology from competition.[100]

In the 1920s, quantum mechanics developed into a more complete theory. Einstein was unhappy with the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory developed by Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg, both in its outcomes and its instrumentalist methodology, Einstein being a scientific realist. In this interpretation, quantum phenomena are inherently probabilistic, with definite states resulting only upon interaction with classical systems. A public debate between Einstein and Bohr followed, lasting on and off for many years (including during the Solvay Conferences). Einstein formulated thought experiments against the Copenhagen interpretation, which were all rebutted by Bohr. In a 1926 letter to Max Born, Einstein wrote: "I, at any rate, am convinced that He [God] does not throw dice." [101]

Einstein was never satisfied by what he perceived to be quantum theory's intrinsically incomplete description of nature, and in 1935 he further explored the issue in collaboration with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, noting that the theory seems to require non-local interactions; this is known as the EPR paradox.[102] The EPR experiment has since been performed, with results confirming quantum theory's predictions.[103] Repercussions of the Einstein–Bohr debate have found their way into philosophical discourse.
Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox
Main article: EPR paradox

In 1935, Einstein returned to the question of quantum mechanics. He considered how a measurement on one of two entangled particles would affect the other. He noted, along with his collaborators, that by performing different measurements on the distant particle, either of position or momentum, different properties of the entangled partner could be discovered without disturbing it in any way.

He then used a hypothesis of local realism to conclude that the other particle had these properties already determined. The principle he proposed is that if it is possible to determine what the answer to a position or momentum measurement would be, without in any way disturbing the particle, then the particle actually has values of position or momentum.

This principle distilled the essence of Einstein's objection to quantum mechanics. As a physical principle, it has since been shown to be incompatible with experiments.

Einstein flouted the ascendant Nazi movement and later tried to be a voice of moderation in the tumultuous formation of the State of Israel.[104] Fred Jerome in his Einstein on Israel and Zionism: His Provocative Ideas About the Middle East argues that Einstein was a Cultural Zionist who supported the idea of a Jewish homeland, but opposed the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine “with borders, an army, and a measure of temporal power.” Instead, he preferred a bi-national state with “continuously functioning, mixed, administrative, economic, and social organizations.”[105][106] However Ami Isseroff in his article Was Einstein a Zionist, argues that Einstein supported the recognition of the State of Israel and declared it "the fulfillment of our dream" when President Harry Truman recognized Israel in May 1948. In the presidential election of 1948, Einstein supported Henry A. Wallace’s Progressive Party which advocated pro-Soviet and pro-Israel foreign policy.[107][108]

Throughout the November Revolution in Germany Einstein signed an appeal for the foundation of a nationwide liberal and democratic party,[109][110] which was published in the Berliner Tageblatt on 16 November 1918,[111] and became a member of the German Democratic Party.[112]

In his article Why Socialism?,[113] published in 1949 in the Monthly Review, Einstein described a chaotic capitalist society, a source of evil to be overcome, as the "predatory phase of human development". He came to the following conclusion:

I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils [capitalism], namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.[113]

He braved anti-communist politics and resistance to the civil rights movement in the United States. On the floor of the US Congress, Einstein was accused by John E. Rankin of Mississippi of being a "foreign-born agitator" who sought "to further the spread of Communism throughout the world".[114] He also participated in the 1927 congress of the League against Imperialism in Brussels.[115]

After World War II, as enmity between the former allies became a serious issue, Einstein wrote, "I do not know how the third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what they will use in the Fourth – rocks!"[116] (Einstein 1949) With Albert Schweitzer and Bertrand Russell, Einstein lobbied to stop nuclear testing and future bombs. Days before his death, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, which led to the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs.[117]

Einstein was a member of several civil rights groups, including the Princeton chapter of the NAACP. When the aged W. E. B. Du Bois was accused of being a Communist spy, Einstein volunteered as a character witness, and the case was dismissed shortly afterward. Einstein's friendship with activist Paul Robeson, with whom he served as co-chair of the American Crusade to End Lynching, lasted twenty years.[118]

Einstein said "Politics is for the moment, equation for the eternity."[119] He declined the presidency of Israel in 1952.[120]
Religious views
Main article: Albert Einstein's religious views

The question of scientific determinism gave rise to questions about Einstein's position on theological determinism, and whether or not he believed in God, or in a god. He once said:

You may call me an agnostic... I do not share the crusading spirit of the professional atheist whose fervor is mostly due to a painful act of liberation from the fetters of religious indoctrination received in youth. I prefer an attitude of humility corresponding to the weakness of our intellectual understanding of nature and of our own being.[121]

Non-scientific legacy

While travelling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to The Hebrew University. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986[122]). Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.[123]

Einstein bequeathed the royalties from use of his image to The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university.[124][125]
In popular culture
Main article: Albert Einstein in popular culture

In the period before World War II, Einstein was so well-known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."[126]
Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.[127] He is a favorite model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dre

In 1922, Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics,[129] "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", which was well supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time". (Einstein 1923)

It was long reported that Einstein gave the Nobel prize money to his first wife, Mileva Marić, in compliance with their 1919 divorce settlement. However, personal correspondence made public in 2006[130] shows that he invested much of it in the United States, and saw much of it wiped out in the Great Depression.

In 1929, Max Planck presented Einstein with the Max Planck medal of the German Physical Society in Berlin, for extraordinary achievements in theoretical physics.[131]

In 1936, Einstein was awarded the Franklin Institute's Franklin Medal for his extensive work on relativity and the photo-electric effect.[131]

The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics named 2005 the "World Year of Physics" in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the publication of the annus mirabilis papers.[132]

The Albert Einstein Science Park is located on the hill Telegrafenberg in Potsdam, Germany. The best known building in the park is the Einstein Tower which has a bronze bust of Einstein at the entrance. The Tower is an astrophysical observatory that was built to perform checks of Einstein's theory of General Relativity.[133]

The Albert Einstein Memorial in central Washington, D.C. is a monumental bronze statue depicting Einstein seated with manuscript papers in hand. The statue, commissioned in 1979, is located in a grove of trees at the southwest corner of the grounds of the National Academy of Sciences on Constitution Avenue.

The chemical element 99, einsteinium, was named for him in August 1955, four months after Einstein's death.[134][135] 2001 Einstein is an inner main belt asteroid discovered on 5 March 1973.[136]

In 1999 Time magazine named him the Person of the Century,[128][137] ahead of Mahatma Gandhi and Franklin Roosevelt, among others. In the words of a biographer, "to the scientifically literate and the public at large, Einstein is synonymous with genius".[138] Also in 1999, an opinion poll of 100 leading physicists ranked Einstein the "greatest physicist ever".[139] A Gallup poll recorded him as the fourth most admired person of the 20th century in the U.S.[140]

In 1990, his name was added to the Walhalla temple for "laudable and distinguished Germans",[141] which is located east of Regensburg, in Bavaria, Germany.[142]

The United States Postal Service honored Einstein with a Prominent Americans series (1965–1978) 8¢ postage stamp.
Awards named after Einstein

The Albert Einstein Award (sometimes called the Albert Einstein Medal because it is accompanied with a gold medal) is an award in theoretical physics, established to recognize high achievement in the natural sciences. It was endowed by the Lewis and Rosa Strauss Memorial Fund in honor of Albert Einstein's 70th birthday. It was first awarded in 1951 and included a prize money of $ 15,000,[143][144] which was later reduced to $ 5,000.[145][146] The winner is selected by a committee (the first of which consisted of Einstein, Oppenheimer, von Neumann and Weyl[147]) of the Institute for Advanced Study, which administers the award.[144]

The Albert Einstein Medal is an award presented by the Albert Einstein Society in Bern, Switzerland. First given in 1979, the award is presented to people who have "rendered outstanding services" in connection with Einstein.[148]

The Albert Einstein Peace Prize is given yearly by the Chicago, Illinois-based Albert Einstein Peace Prize Foundation. Winners of the prize receive $50,000.[149]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein

Adolf Hitler

2010-01-25T22:37:00.000-08:00

Adolf Hitler (German pronunciation: [ˈadɔlf ˈhɪtlɐ], 20 April 1889–30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, abbreviated NSDAP), commonly known as the Nazi Party. He was the totalitarian leader of Germany from 1933 to 1945, serving as chancellor from 1933 to 1945 and as head of state (Führer und Reichskanzler) from 1934 to 1945.

A decorated veteran of World War I, Hitler joined the Nazi Party (DAP) in 1919 and became leader of NSDAP in 1921. Following his imprisonment after a failed coup in Bavaria in 1923, he gained support by promoting German nationalism, anti-semitism, anti-capitalism, and anti-communism with charismatic oratory and propaganda. He was appointed chancellor in 1933, and quickly transformed the Weimar Republic into the Third Reich, a single-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideals of national socialism.

Hitler ultimately wanted to establish a New Order of absolute Nazi German hegemony in Europe. To achieve this, he pursued a foreign policy with the declared goal of seizing Lebensraum ("living space") for the Aryan people; directing the resources of the state towards this goal. This included the rearmament of Germany, which culminated in 1939 when the Wehrmacht invaded Poland. In response, the United Kingdom and France declared war against Germany, leading to the outbreak of the Second World War in Europe.[2]

Within three years, Germany and the Axis powers had occupied most of Europe, and most of Northern Africa, East and Southeast Asia and the Pacific Ocean. However, with the reversal of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, the Allies gained the upper hand from 1942 onwards. By 1945, Allied armies had invaded German-held Europe from all sides. Nazi forces engaged in numerous violent acts during the war, including the systematic murder of as many as 17 million civilians[3], an estimated six million of whom were Jews targeted in a genocide known as the Holocaust.

In the final days of the war, at the fall of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time mistress Eva Braun and, to avoid capture by Soviet forces less than two days later, the two committed suicide

Ancestry

Hitler's father, Alois Hitler, was an illegitimate child and, for the first 39 years of his life, bore his mother's surname, Schicklgruber.[5] Alois’ paternity was not listed on his birth certificate, and has been the subject of much controversy. After receiving a "blackmail letter" from Hitler's nephew William Patrick Hitler threatening to reveal embarrassing information about Hitler's family tree, Nazi Party lawyer Hans Frank investigated, and, in his memoirs, claimed to have uncovered letters that revealed Ms. Schicklgruber was employed as a housekeeper for a Jewish family in Graz and that the family’s 19-year-old son, Leopold Frankenberger, fathered Alois.[5] No evidence has ever been produced to support Frank's claim, and Frank himself said Hitler's full Aryan blood was obvious.[6] Frank's claims were widely believed in the 1950s, but by the 1990s, were generally doubted by historians.[7][8] Ian Kershaw dismisses the Frankenberger story as a "smear" by Hitler's enemies, noting that all Jews had been expelled from Graz in the 15th century and were not allowed to return until well after Alois was born.[8]

In 1876, Alois took the surname of his stepfather, Johann Georg Hiedler. The name was spelled Hiedler, Hüttler, Huettler and Hitler, and was probably regularized to Hitler by a clerk. The origin of the name is either "one who lives in a hut" (Standard German Hütte), "shepherd" (Standard German hüten "to guard", English heed), or is from the Slavic word Hidlar and Hidlarcek. (Regarding the first two theories: some German dialects make little or no distinction between the ü-sound and the i-sound.

Childhood

Adolf Hitler was born at the Gasthof zum Pommer, an inn in Braunau am Inn, Austria–Hungary, the fourth of Alois and Klara Hitler's six children.
Adolf Hitler as an infant.

At the age of three, his family moved to Kapuzinerstrasse 5[9] in Passau, Germany where the young Hitler would acquire Lower Bavarian rather than Austrian as his lifelong native dialect.[10] In 1894, the family moved to Leonding near Linz, then in June 1895, Alois retired to a small landholding at Hafeld near Lambach, where he tried his hand at farming and beekeeping. During this time, the young Hitler attended school in nearby Fischlham. He was a happy, carefree child who tirelessly played "Cowboys and Indians" and, by his own account, became fixated on war after finding a picture book about the Franco-Prussian War in his father's things.[11] He wrote in Mein Kampf: "It was not long before the great historic struggle had become my greatest spiritual experience. From then on, I became more and more enthusiastic about everything that was in any way connected with war or, for that matter, with soldiering."

His father's efforts at Hafeld ended in failure and the family moved to Lambach in 1897. There, Hitler attended a Catholic school located in an 11th-century Benedictine cloister whose walls were engraved in a number of places with crests containing the symbol of the swastika.[12] In 1898, the family returned permanently to Leonding.

His younger brother Edmund died of measles on 2 February 1900, causing permanent changes in Hitler. He went from a confident, outgoing boy who found school easy, to a morose, detached, sullen boy who constantly battled his father and his teachers.

Hitler was close to his mother, but had a troubled relationship with his tradition-minded authoritarian father, who frequently beat him, especially in the years after Alois's retirement and disappointed farming efforts. Alois wanted his son to follow in his footsteps as an Austrian customs official, and this became a huge source of conflict between them.[11] Despite his son's pleas to go to classical high school and become an artist, his father would not budge and sent him to the technical high school in the city of Linz in September 1900. Hitler rebelled, and, in Mein Kampf confessed to failing his first year in hopes that once his father saw "what little progress I was making at the technical school he would let me devote myself to the happiness I dreamed of." But Alois never relented and Hitler became even more bitter and rebellious.

For young Hitler, German Nationalism quickly became an obsession, and a way to rebel against his father, who proudly served the Austrian government. Most people who lived along the German-Austrian border considered themselves German-Austrians, but Hitler expressed loyalty only to Germany. In defiance of the Austrian Monarchy, and his father who continually expressed loyalty to it, Hitler and his young friends liked to use the German greeting, "Heil," and sing the German anthem "Deutschland Über Alles", instead of the Austrian Imperial anthem.

After Alois' sudden death on 3 January 1903, Hitler's behavior at the technical school became even more disruptive, and he was asked to leave. He enrolled at the Realschule in Steyr in 1904, but upon completing his second year, he and his friends went out for a night of celebration and drinking, and an intoxicated Hitler tore his school certificate into four pieces and used it as toilet paper. When someone turned the stained certificate in to the school's director, he “... gave him such a dressing-down that the boy was reduced to shivering jelly. It was probably the most painful and humiliating experience of his life.”[14] Hitler was expelled, never to return to school again.

Hitler became a Christian at age 15. He was confirmed on Whitsunday, 22 May 1904 at the Linz Cathedral.[15] His sponsor was Emanuel Lugert, a friend of his late father.

Early adulthood in Vienna and Munich

From 1905 on, Hitler lived a bohemian life in Vienna on an orphan's pension and support from his mother. He was rejected twice by the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna (1907–1908), citing "unfitness for painting", and was told his abilities lay instead in the field of architecture.[17] His memoirs reflect a fascination with the subject:

The purpose of my trip was to study the picture gallery in the Court Museum, but I had eyes for scarcely anything but the Museum itself. From morning until late at night, I ran from one object of interest to another, but it was always the buildings which held my primary interest.[18]

Following the school rector's recommendation, he too became convinced this was his path to pursue, yet he lacked the proper academic preparation for architecture school:

In a few days I myself knew that I should some day become an architect. To be sure, it was an incredibly hard road; for the studies I had neglected out of spite at the Realschule were sorely needed. One could not attend the Academy's architectural school without having attended the building school at the Technic, and the latter required a high-school degree. I had none of all this. The fulfilment of my artistic dream seemed physically impossible.[18]

On 21 December 1907, Hitler's mother died of breast cancer at age 47. Ordered by a court in Linz, Hitler gave his share of the orphans' benefits to his sister Paula. When he was 21, he inherited money from an aunt. He struggled as a painter in Vienna, copying scenes from postcards and selling his paintings to merchants and tourists. After being rejected a second time by the Academy of Arts, Hitler ran out of money. In 1909, he lived in a shelter for the homeless. By 1910, he had settled into a house for poor working men on Meldemannstraße.

Hitler said he first became an anti-Semite in Vienna,[18] which had a large Jewish community, including Orthodox Jews who had fled the pogroms in Russia. According to childhood friend August Kubizek, however, Hitler was a "confirmed anti-Semite" before he left Linz.[18] Vienna at that time was a hotbed of traditional religious prejudice and 19th century racism. Hitler may have been influenced by the writings of the ideologist and anti-Semite Lanz von Liebenfels and polemics from politicians such as Karl Lueger, founder of the Christian Social Party and Mayor of Vienna, the composer Richard Wagner, and Georg Ritter von Schönerer, leader of the pan-Germanic Away from Rome! movement. Hitler claims in Mein Kampf that his transition from opposing antisemitism on religious grounds to supporting it on racial grounds came from having seen an Orthodox Jew.

There were very few Jews in Linz. In the course of centuries the Jews who lived there had become Europeanised in external appearance and were so much like other human beings that I even looked upon them as Germans. The reason why I did not then perceive the absurdity of such an illusion was that the only external mark which I recognized as distinguishing them from us was the practice of their strange religion. As I thought that they were persecuted on account of their faith my aversion to hearing remarks against them grew almost into a feeling of abhorrence. I did not in the least suspect that there could be such a thing as a systematic antisemitism. Once, when passing through the inner City, I suddenly encountered a phenomenon in a long caftan and wearing black side-locks. My first thought was: Is this a Jew? They certainly did not have this appearance in Linz. I carefully watched the man stealthily and cautiously but the longer I gazed at the strange countenance and examined it feature by feature, the more the question shaped itself in my brain: Is this a German?

If this account is true, Hitler apparently did not act on his new belief. He often was a guest for dinner in a noble Jewish house, and he interacted well with Jewish merchants who tried to sell his paintings.

Hitler may also have been influenced by Martin Luther's On the Jews and their Lies. In Mein Kampf, Hitler refers to Martin Luther as a great warrior, a true statesman, and a great reformer, alongside Wagner and Frederick the Great.[20] Wilhelm Röpke, writing after the Holocaust, concluded that "without any question, Lutheranism influenced the political, spiritual and social history of Germany in a way that, after careful consideration of everything, can be described only as fateful."[21][22]

Hitler claimed that Jews were enemies of the Aryan race. He held them responsible for Austria's crisis. He also identified certain forms of Socialism and Bolshevism, which had many Jewish leaders, as Jewish movements, merging his antisemitism with anti-Marxism. Later, blaming Germany's military defeat in World War I on the 1918 revolutions, he considered Jews the culprits of Imperial Germany's downfall and subsequent economic problems as well.

Generalising from tumultuous scenes in the parliament of the multi-national Austrian monarchy, he decided that the democratic parliamentary system was unworkable. However, according to August Kubizek, his one-time roommate, he was more interested in Wagner's operas than in his politics.

Hitler received the final part of his father's estate in May 1913 and moved to Munich. He wrote in Mein Kampf that he had always longed to live in a "real" German city. In Munich, he became more interested in architecture and, he says, the writings of Houston Stewart Chamberlain. Moving to Munich also helped him escape military service in Austria for a time, but the Munich police (acting in cooperation with the Austrian authorities) eventually arrested him. After a physical exam and a contrite plea, he was deemed unfit for service and allowed to return to Munich. However, when Germany entered World War I in August 1914, he petitioned King Ludwig III of Bavaria for permission to serve in a Bavarian regiment. This request was granted, and Adolf Hitler enlisted in the Bavarian army.

World War I

Hitler served in France and Belgium in the 16th Bavarian Reserve Regiment (called Regiment List after its first commander), ending the war as a Gefreiter (equivalent at the time to a lance corporal in the British and private first class in the American armies). He was a runner, one of the most dangerous jobs on the Western Front, and was often exposed to enemy fire.[24] He participated in a number of major battles on the Western Front, including the First Battle of Ypres, the Battle of the Somme, the Battle of Arras and the Battle of Passchendaele.[25] The Battle of Ypres (October 1914), which became known in Germany as the Kindermord bei Ypern (Massacre of the Innocents) saw approximately 40,000 men (between a third and a half) of the nine infantry divisions present killed in 20 days, and Hitler's own company of 250 reduced to 42 by December. Biographer John Keegan has said that this experience drove Hitler to become aloof and withdrawn for the remaining years of war.[26]

Hitler was twice decorated for bravery. He received the Iron Cross, Second Class, in 1914 and Iron Cross, First Class, in 1918, an honour rarely given to a Gefreiter.[27] However, because the regimental staff thought Hitler lacked leadership skills, he was never promoted to Unteroffizier (equivalent to a British corporal). Other historians say that the reason he was not promoted is that he was not a German citizen. His duties at regimental headquarters, while often dangerous, gave Hitler time to pursue his artwork. He drew cartoons and instructional drawings for an army newspaper. In 1916, he was wounded in either the groin area[28] or the left thigh[29] during the Battle of the Somme, but returned to the front in March 1917. He received the Wound Badge later that year. A noted German historian and author, Sebastian Haffner, referring to Hitler's experience at the front, suggests he did have at least some understanding of the military.

On 15 October 1918, Hitler was admitted to a field hospital, temporarily blinded by a mustard gas attack. The English psychologist David Lewis and Bernhard Horstmann suggest the blindness may have been the result of a conversion disorder (then known as "hysteria").[30] Hitler said it was during this experience that he became convinced the purpose of his life was to "save Germany." Some scholars, notably Lucy Dawidowicz,[31] argue that an intention to exterminate Europe's Jews was fully formed in Hitler's mind at this time, though he probably had not thought through how it could be done. Most historians think the decision was made in 1941, and some think it came as late as 1942.

Two passages in Mein Kampf mention the use of poison gas:

At the beginning of the Great War, or even during the War, if twelve or fifteen thousand of these Jews who were corrupting the nation had been forced to submit to poison-gas . . . then the millions of sacrifices made at the front would not have been in vain.[32]

These tactics are based on an accurate estimation of human weakness and must lead to success, with almost mathematical certainty, unless the other side also learns how to fight poison gas with poison gas. The weaker natures must be told that here it is a case of to be or not to be.[18]

Hitler had long admired Germany, and during the war he had become a passionate German patriot, although he did not become a German citizen until 1932. Hitler found the war to be 'the greatest of all experiences' and afterwards he was praised by a number of his commanding officers for his bravery.[33] He was shocked by Germany's capitulation in November 1918 even while the German army still held enemy territory.[34] Like many other German nationalists, Hitler believed in the Dolchstoßlegende ("dagger-stab legend") which claimed that the army, "undefeated in the field," had been "stabbed in the back" by civilian leaders and Marxists back on the home front. These politicians were later dubbed the November Criminals.

The Treaty of Versailles deprived Germany of various territories, demilitarised the Rhineland and imposed other economically damaging sanctions. The treaty re-created Poland, which even moderate Germans regarded as an outrage. The treaty also blamed Germany for all the horrors of the war, something which major historians such as John Keegan now consider at least in part to be victor's justice: most European nations in the run-up to World War I had become increasingly militarised and were eager to fight. The culpability of Germany was used as a basis to impose reparations on Germany (the amount was repeatedly revised under the Dawes Plan, the Young Plan, and the Hoover Moratorium). Germany in turn perceived the treaty and especially, Article 231 the paragraph on the German responsibility for the war as a humiliation. For example, there was a nearly total demilitarisation of the armed forces, allowing Germany only six battleships, no submarines, no air force, an army of 100,000 without conscription and no armoured vehicles. The treaty was an important factor in both the social and political conditions encountered by Hitler and his Nazis as they sought power. Hitler and his party used the signing of the treaty by the "November Criminals" as a reason to build up Germany so that it could never happen again. He also used the "November Criminals" as scapegoats, although at the Paris peace conference, these politicians had had very little choice in the matter.

Main article: Adolf Hitler's political beliefs
A copy of Adolf Hitler's forged German Workers' Party (DAP) membership card. His actual membership number was 555 (the 55th member of the party – the 500 was added to make the group appear larger) but later the number was reduced to create the impression that Hitler was one of the founding members.[35] Hitler had wanted to create his own party, but was ordered by his superiors in the Reichswehr to infiltrate an existing one instead.

After World War I, Hitler remained in the army and returned to Munich, where he – in contrast to his later declarations – attended the funeral march for the murdered Bavarian prime minister Kurt Eisner.[36] After the suppression of the Bavarian Soviet Republic, he took part in "national thinking" courses organized by the Education and Propaganda Department (Dept Ib/P) of the Bavarian Reichswehr Group, Headquarters 4 under Captain Karl Mayr. Scapegoats were found in "international Jewry", communists, and politicians across the party spectrum, especially the parties of the Weimar Coalition.

In July 1919, Hitler was appointed a Verbindungsmann (police spy) of an Aufklärungskommando (Intelligence Commando) of the Reichswehr, both to influence other soldiers and to infiltrate a small party, the German Workers' Party (DAP). During his inspection of the party, Hitler was impressed with founder Anton Drexler's anti-semitic, nationalist, anti-capitalist and anti-Marxist ideas, which favoured a strong active government, a "non-Jewish" version of socialism and mutual solidarity of all members of society. Drexler was impressed with Hitler's oratory skills and invited him to join the party. Hitler joined DAP on 12 September 1919[37] and became the party's 55th member.[38] He was also made the seventh member of the executive committee.[39] Years later, he claimed to be the party's seventh overall member, but it has been established that this claim is false.[40]

Here Hitler met Dietrich Eckart, one of the early founders of the party and member of the occult Thule Society.[41] Eckart became Hitler's mentor, exchanging ideas with him, teaching him how to dress and speak, and introducing him to a wide range of people. Hitler thanked Eckart by paying tribute to him in the second volume of Mein Kampf. To increase the party's appeal, the party changed its name to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or National Socialist German Workers Party (abbreviated NSDAP).

Hitler was discharged from the army in March 1920 and with his former superiors' continued encouragement began participating full time in the party's activities. By early 1921, Hitler was becoming highly effective at speaking in front of large crowds. In February, Hitler spoke before a crowd of nearly six thousand in Munich. To publicize the meeting, he sent out two truckloads of party supporters to drive around with swastikas, cause a commotion and throw out leaflets, their first use of this tactic. Hitler gained notoriety outside of the party for his rowdy, polemic speeches against the Treaty of Versailles, rival politicians (including monarchists, nationalists and other non-internationalist socialists) and especially against Marxists and Jews.

The NSDAP[42] was centered in Munich, a hotbed of German nationalists who included Army officers determined to crush Marxism and undermine the Weimar republic. Gradually they noticed Hitler and his growing movement as a suitable vehicle for their goals. Hitler traveled to Berlin to visit nationalist groups during the summer of 1921, and in his absence there was a revolt among the DAP leadership in Munich.

The party was run by an executive committee whose original members considered Hitler to be overbearing. They formed an alliance with a group of socialists from Augsburg. Hitler rushed back to Munich and countered them by tendering his resignation from the party on 11 July 1921. When they realized the loss of Hitler would effectively mean the end of the party, he seized the moment and announced he would return on the condition that he replace Drexler as party chairman, with unlimited powers. Infuriated committee members (including Drexler) held out at first. Meanwhile an anonymous pamphlet appeared entitled Adolf Hitler: Is he a traitor?, attacking Hitler's lust for power and criticizing the violent men around him. Hitler responded to its publication in a Munich newspaper by suing for libel and later won a small settlement.

The executive committee of the NSDAP eventually backed down and Hitler's demands were put to a vote of party members. Hitler received 543 votes for and only one against. At the next gathering on 29 July 1921, Adolf Hitler was introduced as Führer of the National Socialist German Workers' Party, marking the first time this title was publicly used.

Hitler's beer hall oratory, attacking Jews, social democrats, liberals, reactionary monarchists, capitalists and communists, began attracting adherents. Early followers included Rudolf Hess, the former air force pilot Hermann Göring, and the army captain Ernst Röhm, who eventually became head of the Nazis' paramilitary organization, the SA (Sturmabteilung, or "Storm Division"), which protected meetings and attacked political opponents. As well, Hitler assimilated independent groups, such as the Nuremberg-based Deutsche Werkgemeinschaft, led by Julius Streicher, who became Gauleiter of Franconia. Hitler attracted the attention of local business interests, was accepted into influential circles of Munich society, and became associated with wartime General Erich Ludendorff during this time.

Beer Hall Putsch
Main article: Beer Hall Putsch

Encouraged by this early support, Hitler decided to use Ludendorff as a front in an attempted coup later known as the "Beer Hall Putsch" (sometimes as the "Hitler Putsch" or "Munich Putsch"). The Nazi Party had copied Italy's fascists in appearance and had adopted some of their policies, and in 1923, Hitler wanted to emulate Benito Mussolini's "March on Rome" by staging his own "Campaign in Berlin". Hitler and Ludendorff obtained the clandestine support of Gustav von Kahr, Bavaria's de facto ruler, along with leading figures in the Reichswehr and the police. As political posters show, Ludendorff, Hitler and the heads of the Bavarian police and military planned on forming a new government.

On 8 November 1923, Hitler and the SA stormed a public meeting headed by Kahr in the Bürgerbräukeller, a large beer hall in Munich. He declared that he had set up a new government with Ludendorff and demanded, at gunpoint, the support of Kahr and the local military establishment for the destruction of the Berlin government.[43] Kahr withdrew his support and fled to join the opposition to Hitler at the first opportunity.[44] The next day, when Hitler and his followers marched from the beer hall to the Bavarian War Ministry to overthrow the Bavarian government as a start to their "March on Berlin", the police dispersed them. Sixteen NSDAP members were killed.[45]

Hitler fled to the home of Ernst Hanfstaengl and contemplated suicide. He was soon arrested for high treason. Alfred Rosenberg became temporary leader of the party. During Hitler's trial, he was given almost unlimited time to speak, and his popularity soared as he voiced nationalistic sentiments in his defence speech. A Munich personality became a nationally known figure. On 1 April 1924, Hitler was sentenced to five years' imprisonment at Landsberg Prison. Hitler received favoured treatment from the guards and had much fan mail from admirers. He was pardoned and released from jail on 20 December 1924, by order of the Bavarian Supreme Court on 19 December, which issued its final rejection of the state prosecutor's objections to Hitler's early release.[46] Including time on remand, he had served little more than one year of his sentence.[47]

On 28 June 1925, Hitler wrote a letter from Uffing to the editor of The Nation in New York City stating how long he had been in prison at "Sandberg a. S." [sic] and how much his privileges had been revoked.[48]
Mein Kampf
Main article: Mein Kampf
Mein Kampf

While at Landsberg he dictated most of the first volume of Mein Kampf (My Struggle, originally entitled Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity, and Cowardice) to his deputy Rudolf Hess.[47] The book, dedicated to Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart, was an autobiography and an exposition of his ideology. Mein Kampf was influenced by The Passing of the Great Race by Madison Grant which Hitler called "my Bible."[49] It was published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926, selling about 240,000 copies between 1925 and 1934. By the end of the war, about 10 million copies had been sold or distributed (newlyweds and soldiers received free copies).

Hitler spent years dodging taxes on the royalties of his book and had accumulated a tax debt of about 405,500 Reichsmarks (€6 million in today's money) by the time he became chancellor (at which time his debt was waived).[50][51]

The copyright of Mein Kampf in Europe is claimed by the Free State of Bavaria and scheduled to end on 31 December 2015. Reproductions in Germany are authorized only for scholarly purposes and in heavily commented form. The situation is, however, unclear. Historian Werner Maser, in an interview with Bild am Sonntag has stated that Peter Raubal, son of Hitler's nephew, Leo Raubal, would have a strong legal case for winning the copyright from Bavaria if he pursued it. Raubal has stated he wants no part of the rights to the book, which could be worth millions of euros.[52] The uncertain status has led to contested trials in Poland and Sweden. Mein Kampf, however, is published in the U.S., as well as in other countries such as Turkey and Israel, by publishers with various political positions.

Rebuilding of the party
Adolf Hitler (left), standing up behind Hermann Göring at a Nazi rally in Nuremberg, 1928.

At the time of Hitler's release, the political situation in Germany had calmed and the economy had improved, which hampered Hitler's opportunities for agitation. Though the "Hitler Putsch" had given Hitler some national prominence, his party's mainstay was still Munich.

The NSDAP and its organs were banned in Bavaria after the collapse of the putsch. Hitler convinced Heinrich Held, Prime Minister of Bavaria, to lift the ban, based on representations that the party would now only seek political power through legal means. Even though the ban on the NSDAP was removed effective 16 February 1925,[53] Hitler incurred a new ban on public speaking as a result of an inflammatory speech. Since Hitler was banned from public speeches, he appointed Gregor Strasser, who in 1924 had been elected to the Reichstag, as Reichsorganisationsleiter, authorizing him to organize the party in northern Germany. Strasser, joined by his younger brother Otto and Joseph Goebbels, steered an increasingly independent course, emphasizing the socialist element in the party's programme. The Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Gauleiter Nord-West became an internal opposition, threatening Hitler's authority, but this faction was defeated at the Bamberg Conference in 1926, during which Goebbels joined Hitler.

After this encounter, Hitler centralized the party even more and asserted the Führerprinzip ("Leader principle") as the basic principle of party organization. Leaders were not elected by their group but were rather appointed by their superior and were answerable to them while demanding unquestioning obedience from their inferiors. Consistent with Hitler's disdain for democracy, all power and authority devolved from the top down.

A key element of Hitler's appeal was his ability to evoke a sense of offended national pride caused by the Treaty of Versailles imposed on the defeated German Empire by the Western Allies. Germany had lost economically important territory in Europe along with its colonies and in admitting to sole responsibility for the war had agreed to pay a huge reparations bill totaling 132 billion marks. Most Germans bitterly resented these terms, but early Nazi attempts to gain support by blaming these humiliations on "international Jewry" were not particularly successful with the electorate. The party learned quickly, and soon a more subtle propaganda emerged, combining antisemitism with an attack on the failures of the "Weimar system" and the parties supporting it.

Having failed in overthrowing the Republic by a coup, Hitler pursued a "strategy of legality": this meant formally adhering to the rules of the Weimar Republic until he had legally gained power. He would then use the institutions of the Weimar Republic to destroy it and establish himself as dictator. Some party members, especially in the paramilitary SA, opposed this strategy; Röhm and others ridiculed Hitler as "Adolphe Legalité".

Brüning Administration
An NSDAP meeting in December 1930, with Hitler in the centre

The political turning point for Hitler came when the Great Depression hit Germany in 1930. The Weimar Republic had never been firmly rooted and was openly opposed by right-wing conservatives (including monarchists), communists and the Nazis. As the parties loyal to the democratic, parliamentary republic found themselves unable to agree on counter-measures, their grand coalition broke up and was replaced by a minority cabinet. The new Chancellor, Heinrich Brüning of the Roman Catholic Centre Party, lacking a majority in parliament, had to implement his measures through the president's emergency decrees. Tolerated by the majority of parties, this rule by decree would become the norm over a series of unworkable parliaments and paved the way for authoritarian forms of government.

The Reichstag's initial opposition to Brüning's measures led to premature elections in September 1930. The republican parties lost their majority and their ability to resume the grand coalition, while the Nazis suddenly rose from relative obscurity to win 18.3% of the vote along with 107 seats. In the process, they jumped from the ninth-smallest party in the chamber to the second largest.[55]

In September–October 1930, Hitler appeared as a major defence witness at the trial in Leipzig of two junior Reichswehr officers charged with membership of the Nazi Party, which at that time was forbidden to Reichswehr personnel.[56] The two officers, Leutnants Richard Scheringer and Hans Ludin admitted quite openly to Nazi Party membership, and used as their defence that the Nazi Party membership should not be forbidden to those serving in the Reichswehr.[57] When the Prosecution argued that the Nazi Party was a dangerous revolutionary force, one of the defence lawyers, Hans Frank had Hitler brought to the stand to prove that the Nazi Party was a law-abiding party.[57] During his testimony, Hitler insisted that his party was determined to come to power legally, that the phrase "National Revolution" was only to be interpreted "politically", and that his Party was a friend, not an enemy of the Reichswehr.[58] Hitler's testimony of 25 September 1930 won him many admirers within the ranks of the officer corps.

Brüning's measures of budget consolidation and financial austerity brought little economic improvement and were extremely unpopular.[60] Under these circumstances, Hitler appealed to the bulk of German farmers, war veterans and the middle class, who had been hard-hit by both the inflation of the 1920s and the unemployment of the Depression.[61] In September 1931, Hitler's niece Geli Raubal was found dead in her bedroom in his Munich apartment (his half-sister Angela and her daughter Geli had been with him in Munich since 1929), an apparent suicide. Geli, who was believed to be in some sort of romantic relationship with Hitler, was 19 years younger than he was and had used his gun. His niece's death is viewed as a source of deep, lasting pain for him.

In 1932, Hitler intended to run against the aging President Paul von Hindenburg in the scheduled presidential elections. His 27 January 1932 speech to the Industry Club in Düsseldorf won him, for the first time, support from a broad swath of Germany's most powerful industrialists.[63] Though Hitler had left Austria in 1913, he still had not acquired German citizenship and hence could not run for public office. In February, however, the state government of Brunswick, in which the Nazi Party participated, appointed Hitler to a minor administrative post and therby made him a citizen of Brunswick on 25 February 1932.[64] In those days, the states conferred citizenship, so this automatically made Hitler a citizen of Germany and thus eligible to run for president

The new German citizen ran against Hindenburg, who was supported by a broad range of nationalist, monarchist, Catholic, republican and even social democratic parties. Another candidate was a Communist and member of a fringe right-wing party. Hitler's campaign was called "Hitler über Deutschland" (Hitler over Germany).[66] The name had a double meaning; besides a reference to his dictatorial ambitions, it referred to the fact that he campaigned by aircraft.[66] Hitler came in second on both rounds, attaining more than 35% of the vote during the second one in April. Although he lost to Hindenburg, the election established Hitler as a realistic alternative in German politics.

Meanwhile, Papen tried to get his revenge on Schleicher by working toward the General's downfall, through forming an intrigue with the camarilla and Alfred Hugenberg, media mogul and chairman of the DNVP. Also involved were Hjalmar Schacht, Fritz Thyssen and other leading German businessmen. They financially supported the Nazi Party, which had been brought to the brink of bankruptcy by the cost of heavy campaigning. The businessmen wrote letters to Hindenburg, urging him to appoint Hitler as leader of a government "independent from parliamentary parties" which could turn into a movement that would "enrapture millions of people."[68]
Adolf Hitler, at a window of the Reich's Chancellory, receives an ovation from supporters in his first day in office as Chancellor. (30 January 1933)

Finally, the president reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler Chancellor of a coalition government formed by the NSDAP and DNVP. However, the Nazis were to be contained by a framework of conservative cabinet ministers, most notably by Papen as Vice-Chancellor and by Hugenberg as Minister of the Economy. The only other Nazi besides Hitler to get a portfolio was Wilhelm Frick, who was given the relatively powerless interior ministry (in Germany at the time, most powers wielded by the interior minister in other countries were held by the interior ministers of the states). As a concession to the Nazis, Göring was named minister without portfolio. While Papen intended to use Hitler as a figurehead, the Nazis gained key positions.

On the morning of 30 January 1933, in Hindenburg's office, Adolf Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor during what some observers later described as a brief and simple ceremony. His first speech as Chancellor took place on 10 February. The Nazis' seizure of power subsequently became known as the Machtergreifung.

Reichstag fire and the March elections

Having become Chancellor, Hitler foiled all attempts by his opponents to gain a majority in parliament. Because no single party could gain a majority, Hitler persuaded President Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag again. Elections were scheduled for early March, but on 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was set on fire.[69] Since a Dutch independent communist was found in the building, the fire was blamed on a communist plot. The government reacted with the Reichstag Fire Decree of 28 February which suspended basic rights, including habeas corpus. Under the provisions of this decree, the German Communist Party (KPD) and other groups were suppressed, and Communist functionaries and deputies were arrested, put to flight, or murdered.

Campaigning continued, with the Nazis making use of paramilitary violence, anti-communist hysteria, and the government's resources for propaganda. On election day, 6 March, the NSDAP increased its result to 43.9% of the vote, remaining the largest party, but its victory was marred by its failure to secure an absolute majority, necessitating maintaining a coalition with the DNVP

On 21 March, the new Reichstag was constituted with an opening ceremony held at Potsdam's garrison church. This "Day of Potsdam" was staged to demonstrate reconciliation and unity between the revolutionary Nazi movement and "Old Prussia" with its elites and virtues. Hitler appeared in a tail coat and humbly greeted the aged President Hindenburg.

Because of the Nazis' failure to obtain a majority on their own, Hitler's government confronted the newly-elected Reichstag with the Enabling Act that would have vested the cabinet with legislative powers for a period of four years. Though such a bill was not unprecedented, this act was different since it allowed for deviations from the constitution. Since the bill required a ⅔ majority in order to pass, the government needed the support of other parties. The position of the Centre Party, the third largest party in the Reichstag, turned out to be decisive: under the leadership of Ludwig Kaas, the party decided to vote for the Enabling Act. It did so in return for the government's oral guarantees regarding the Church's liberty, the concordats signed by German states and the continued existence of the Centre Party.

On 23 March, the Reichstag assembled in a replacement building under extremely turbulent circumstances. Some SA men served as guards within while large groups outside the building shouted slogans and threats toward the arriving deputies. Kaas announced that the Centre Party would support the bill with "concerns put aside," while Social Democrat Otto Wels denounced the act in his speech. At the end of the day, all parties except the Social Democrats voted in favour of the bill. The Communists, as well as some Social Democrats, were barred from attending. The Enabling Act, combined with the Reichstag Fire Decree, transformed Hitler's government into a legal dictatorship.

With this combination of legislative and executive power, Hitler's government further suppressed the remaining political opposition. The Communist Party of Germany and the Social Democratic Party (SPD) were banned, while all other political parties were forced to dissolve themselves. Finally, on 14 July, the Nazi Party was declared the only legal party in Germany.

Hitler used the SA paramilitary to push Hugenberg into resigning, and proceeded to politically isolate Vice-Chancellor Papen. Because the SA's demands for political and military power caused much anxiety among military and political leaders, Hitler used allegations of a plot by the SA leader Ernst Röhm to purge the SA's leadership during the Night of the Long Knives. As well, opponents unconnected with the SA were murdered, notably Gregor Strasser and former Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher.[72]
In 1934, Hitler became Germany's president under the title Führer und Reichskanzler (Leader and Chancellor of the Reich).

President Paul von Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934. Rather than call new elections as required by the constitution, Hitler's cabinet passed a law proclaiming the presidency vacant and transferred the role and powers of the head of state to Hitler as Führer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor). This action effectively removed the last legal remedy by which Hitler could be dismissed – and with it, nearly all institutional checks and balances on his power.

In a mid-August plebiscite, the merger of the presidency with the chancellorship was approved by 84.6% of the electorate.[73] This action technically violated both the constitution and the Enabling Act. The constitution had been amended in 1932 to make the president of the High Court of Justice, not the chancellor, acting president until new elections could be held. The Enabling Act specifically barred Hitler from taking any action that tampered with the presidency. However, no one dared object.

As head of state, Hitler now became Supreme Commander of the armed forces. When it came time for the soldiers and sailors to swear the traditional loyalty oath, it had been altered into an oath of personal loyalty to Hitler. Normally, soldiers and sailors swear loyalty to the holder of the office of supreme commander/commander-in-chief, not a specific person.[74]

In 1938, Hitler forced the resignation of his War Minister (formerly Defense Minister), Werner von Blomberg, after evidence surfaced that Blomberg's new wife had a criminal past. Prior to removing Blomberg, Hitler and his clique removed army commander Werner von Fritsch on suspicion of homosexuality.[75] Hitler replaced the Ministry of War with the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (High Command of the Armed Forces, or OKW), headed by the pliant General Wilhelm Keitel. More importantly, Hitler announced he was assuming personal command of the armed forces. He took over Blomberg's other old post, that of Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, for himself. He was already Supreme Commander by virtue of holding the powers of the president. The next day, the newspapers announced, "Strongest concentration of powers in Führer's hands!"

Having secured supreme political power, Hitler went on to gain public support by convincing most Germans he was their savior from the economic Depression, the Versailles treaty, communism, the "Judeo-Bolsheviks", and other "undesirable" minorities. The Nazis eliminated opposition through a process known as Gleichschaltung ("bringing into line").

Economy and culture

Hitler oversaw one of the greatest expansions of industrial production and civil improvement Germany had ever seen, mostly based on debt flotation and expansion of the military. Nazi policies toward women strongly encouraged them to stay at home to bear children and keep house. In a September 1934 speech to the National Socialist Women's Organization, Adolf Hitler argued that for the German woman her "world is her husband, her family, her children, and her home." This policy was reinforced by bestowing the Cross of Honor of the German Mother on women bearing four or more babies. The unemployment rate was cut substantially, mostly through arms production and sending women home so that men could take their jobs. Given this, claims that the German economy achieved near full employment are at least partly artifacts of propaganda from the era. Much of the financing for Hitler's reconstruction and rearmament came from currency manipulation by Hjalmar Schacht, including the clouded credits through the Mefo bills.
1934 Nuremberg rally

Hitler oversaw one of the largest infrastructure-improvement campaigns in German history, with the construction of dozens of dams, autobahns, railroads, and other civil works. Hitler's policies emphasised the importance of family life: men were the "breadwinners", while women's priorities were to lie in bringing up children and in household work. This revitalising of industry and infrastructure came at the expense of the overall standard of living, at least for those not affected by the chronic unemployment of the later Weimar Republic, since wages were slightly reduced in pre-World War II years, despite a 25% increase in the cost of living.[76] Laborers and farmers, the traditional voters of the NSDAP, however, saw an increase in their standard of living.

Hitler's government sponsored architecture on an immense scale, with Albert Speer becoming famous as the first architect of the Reich. While important as an architect in implementing Hitler's classicist reinterpretation of German culture, Speer proved much more effective as armaments minister during the last years of World War II. In 1936, Berlin hosted the summer Olympic games, which were opened by Hitler and choreographed to demonstrate Aryan superiority over all other races, achieving mixed results.

Although Hitler made plans for a Breitspurbahn ("broad gauge railroad network"), they were preempted by World War II. Had the railroad been built, its gauge would have been three metres, even wider than the old Great Western Railway of Britain.

Hitler contributed slightly to the design of the car that later became the Volkswagen Beetle and charged Ferdinand Porsche with its design and construction.[77] Production was deferred because of the war.

Hitler considered Sparta to be the first National Socialist state, and praised its early eugenics treatment of deformed children.[78]

On April 20, 1939, a lavish celebration was held in honor of Hitler's 30th birthday, featuring military parades, visits from foreign dignitaries, thousands of flaming torches and Nazi banners.[79]

An important historical debate about Hitler’s economic policies concerns the “modernization” debate. Historians such as David Schoenbaum and Henry Ashby Turner have argued that social and economic polices under Hitler were modernization carried out in pursuit of anti-modern goals.[80] Other groups of historians centered around Rainer Zitelmann have contended that Hitler had a deliberate strategy of pursuing a revolutionary modernization of German society

Main articles: Axis powers, Tripartite Pact, and German re-armament
Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini during Hitler's visit to Venice from 14–16 June 1934.

In a meeting with his leading generals and admirals on 3 February 1933, Hitler spoke of "conquest of Lebensraum in the East and its ruthless Germanisation" as his ultimate foreign policy objectives.[82] In March 1933, the first major statement of German foreign policy aims appeared with the memo submitted to the German Cabinet by the State Secretary at the Auswärtiges Amt (Foreign Office), Prince Bernhard von Bülow (not to be confused with his more famous uncle, the former Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow), which advocated Anschluss with Austria, the restoration of the frontiers of 1914, the rejection of the Part V of Versailles, the return of the former German colonies in Africa, and a German zone of influence in Eastern Europe as goals for the future. Hitler found the goals in Bülow's memo to be too modest.[83] In March 1933, to resolve the deadlock between the French demand for sécurité (“security”) and the German demand for gleichberechtigung (“equality of armaments”) at the World Disarmament Conference in Geneva, Switzerland, the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald presented the compromise “MacDonald Plan”. Hitler endorsed the “MacDonald Plan”, correctly guessing that nothing would come of it, and that in the interval he could win some goodwill in London by making his government appear moderate, and the French obstinate.[84]

In May 1933, Hitler met with Herbert von Dirksen, the German Ambassador in Moscow. Dirksen advised the Führer that he was allowing relations with the Soviet Union to deteriorate to a unacceptable extent, and advised to take immediate steps to repair relations with the Soviets.[85] Much to Dirksen's intense disappointment, Hitler informed that he wished for an anti-Soviet understanding with Poland, which Dirksen protested implied recognition of the German-Polish border, leading Hitler to state he was after much greater things than merely overturning the Treaty of Versailles.[86]

In June 1933, Hitler was forced to disavow Alfred Hugenberg of the German National People's Party, who while attending the London World Economic Conference put forth a programme of colonial expansion in both Africa and Eastern Europe, which created a major storm abroad.[87] Speaking to the Burgermeister of Hamburg in 1933, Hitler commented that Germany required several years of peace before it could be sufficiently rearmed enough to risk a war, and until then a policy of caution was called for.[88] In his "peace speeches" of 17 May 1933, 21 May 1935, and 7 March 1936, Hitler stressed his supposed pacific goals and a willingness to work within the international system.[89] In private, Hitler's plans were something less than pacific. At the first meeting of his Cabinet in 1933, Hitler placed military spending ahead of unemployment relief, and indeed was only prepared to spend money on the latter if the former was satisfied first.[90] When the president of the Reichsbank, the former Chancellor Dr. Hans Luther, offered the new government the legal limit of 100 million Reichmarks to finance rearmament, Hitler found the sum too low, and sacked Luther in March 1933 to replace him with Hjalmar Schacht, who during the next five years was to advance 12 billion Reichmarks worth of "Mefo-bills" to pay for rearmament.[91]

A major initiative in Hitler's foreign policy in his early years was to create an alliance with Britain. In the 1920s, Hitler wrote that a future National Socialist foreign policy goal was "the destruction of Russia with the help of England."[92] In May 1933, Alfred Rosenberg in his capacity as head of the Nazi Party's Aussenpolitisches Amt (Foreign Political Office) visited London as part of a disastrous effort to win an alliance with Britain.[93] In October 1933, Hitler pulled Germany out of both the League of Nations and World Disarmament Conference after his Foreign Minister Baron Konstantin von Neurath made it appear to world public opinion that the French demand for sécurité was the principal stumbling block.[94]

In line with the views he advocated in Mein Kampf and Zweites Buch about the necessity of building an Anglo-German alliance, Hitler, in a meeting in November 1933 with the British Ambassador, Sir Eric Phipps, offered a scheme in which Britain would support a 300,000-strong German Army in exchange for a German “guarantee” of the British Empire.[95] In response, the British stated a 10-year waiting period would be necessary before Britain would support an increase in the size of the German Army.[95] A more successful initiative in foreign policy occurred with relations with Poland. In spite of intense opposition from the military and the Auswärtiges Amt who preferred closer ties with the Soviet Union, Hitler, in the fall of 1933 opened secret talks with Poland that were to lead to the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact of January 1934.[94]

In February 1934, Hitler met with the British Lord Privy Seal, Sir Anthony Eden, and hinted strongly that Germany already possessed an Air Force, which had been forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles.[96] In the fall of 1934, Hitler was seriously concerned over the dangers of inflation damaging his popularity.[97] In a secret speech given before his Cabinet on 5 November 1934, Hitler stated he had "given the working class his word that he would allow no price increases. Wage-earners would accuse him of breaking his word if he did not act against the rising prices. Revolutionary conditions among the people would be the further consequence."[97]

Although a secret German armaments programme had been on-going since 1919, in March 1935, Hitler rejected Part V of the Versailles treaty by publicly announcing that the German army would be expanded to 600,000 men (six times the number stipulated in the Treaty of Versailles), introducing an Air Force (Luftwaffe) and increasing the size of the Navy (Kriegsmarine). Britain, France, Italy and the League of Nations quickly condemned these actions. However, after re-assurances from Hitler that Germany was only interested in peace, no country took any action to stop this development and German re-armament continued. Later in March 1935, Hitler held a series of meetings in Berlin with the British Foreign Secretary Sir John Simon and Eden, during which he successfully evaded British offers for German participation in a regional security pact meant to serve as an Eastern European equivalent of the Locarno pact while the two British ministers avoided taking up Hitler's offers of alliance.[98] During his talks with Simon and Eden, Hitler first used what he regarded as the brilliant colonial negotiating tactic, when Hitler parlayed an offer from Simon to return to the League of Nations by demanding the return of the former German colonies in Africa.[99]

Starting in April 1935, disenchantment with how the Third Reich had developed in practice as opposed to what been promised led many in the Nazi Party, especially the Alte Kämpfer (Old Fighters; i.e., those who joined the Party before 1930, and who tended to be the most ardent anti-Semitics in the Party), and the SA into lashing out against Germany's Jewish minority as a way of expressing their frustrations against a group that the authorities would not generally protect.[100] The rank and file of the Party were most unhappy that two years into the Third Reich, and despite countless promises by Hitler prior to 1933, no law had been passed banning marriage or sex between those Germans belonging to the “Aryan” and Jewish “races”. A Gestapo report from the spring of 1935 stated that the rank and file of the Nazi Party would "set in motion by us from below," a solution to the "Jewish problem," "that the government would then have to follow."[101] As a result, Nazi Party activists and the SA started a major wave of assaults, vandalism and boycotts against German Jews.[102]

On 18 June 1935, the Anglo-German Naval Agreement (A.G.N.A.) was signed in London which allowed for increasing the allowed German tonnage up to 35% of that of the British navy. Hitler called the signing of the A.G.N.A. "the happiest day of his life" as he believed the agreement marked the beginning of the Anglo-German alliance he had predicted in Mein Kampf.[103] This agreement was made without consulting either France or Italy, directly undermined the League of Nations and put the Treaty of Versailles on the path towards irrelevance.[104] After the signing of the A.G.N.A., in June 1935 Hitler ordered the next step in the creation of an Anglo-German alliance: taking all the societies demanding the restoration of the former German African colonies and coordinating (Gleichschaltung) them into a new Reich Colonial League (Reichskolonialbund) which over the next few years waged an extremely aggressive propaganda campaign for colonial restoration.[105] Hitler had no real interest in the former German African colonies. In Mein Kampf, Hitler had excoriated the Imperial German government for pursuing colonial expansion in Africa prior to 1914 on the grounds that the natural area for Lebensraum was Eastern Europe, not Africa.[106] It was Hitler’s intention to use colonial demands as a negotiating tactic that would see a German “renunciation” of colonial claims in exchange for Britain making an alliance with the Reich on German terms.[107]

In the summer of 1935, Hitler was informed that, between inflation and the need to use foreign exchange to buy raw materials Germany lacked for rearmament, there were only 5 million Reichmarks available for military expenditure, and a pressing need for some 300,000 Reichmarks/day to prevent food shortages.[108] In August 1935, Dr. Hjalmar Schacht advised Hitler that the wave of anti-Semitic violence was interfering with the workings of the economy, and hence rearmament.[109] Following Dr. Schacht’s complaints, plus reports that the German public did not approve of the wave of anti-Semitic violence, and that continuing police toleration of the violence was hurting the regime's popularity with the wider public, Hitler ordered a stop to "individual actions" against German Jews on 8 August 1935.[109] From Hitler's perspective, it was imperative to bring in harsh new anti-Semitic laws as a consolation prize for those Party members who were disappointed with Hitler's halt order of 8 August, especially because Hitler had only reluctantly given the halt order for pragmatic reasons, and his symapthies were with the Party radicals.[109] The annual Nazi Party Rally held at Nuremberg in September 1935 was to feature the first session of the Reichstag held at that city since 1543. Hitler had planned to have the Reichstag pass a law making the Nazi Swastika flag the flag of the German Reich, and a major speech in support of the impending Italian aggression against Ethiopia.[110] Hitler felt that the Italian aggression opened great opportunities for Germany. In August 1935, Hitler told Goebbels his foreign policy vision as: "With England eternal alliance. Good relationship with Poland . . . Expansion to the East. The Baltic belongs to us . . . Conflicts Italy-Abyssinia-England, then Japan-Russia imminent."[111]

At the last minute before the Nuremberg Party Rally was due to begin, the German Foreign Minister Baron Konstantin von Neurath persuaded Hitler to cancel his speech praising Italy for her willingness to commit aggression. Neurath convinced Hitler that his speech was too provocative to public opinion abroad as it contradicted the message of Hitler’s “peace speeches”, thus leaving Hitler with the sudden need to have something else to address the first meeting of the Reichstag in Nuremberg since 1543, other than the Reich Flag Law.[112] On 13 September 1935, Hitler hurriedly ordered two civil servants, Dr. Bernhard Lösener and Franz Albrecht Medicus of the Interior Ministry to fly to Nuremberg to start drafting anti-Semitic laws for Hitler to present to the Reichstag for 15 September.[110] On the evening of 15 September, Hitler presented two laws before the Reichstag banning sex and marriage between Aryan and Jewish Germans, the employment of Aryan woman under the age of 45 in Jewish households, and deprived “non-Aryans” of the benefits of German citizenship.[113] The laws of September 1935 are generally known as the Nuremberg Laws.

In October 1935, in order to prevent further food shortages and the introduction of rationing, Hitler reluctantly ordered cuts in military spending[114] In the spring of 1936 in response to requests from Richard Walther Darré, Hitler ordered 60 million Reichmarks of foreign exchange to be used to buy seed oil for German farmers, a decision that led to bitter complaints from Dr. Schacht and the War Minister Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg that it would be impossible to achieve rearmament as long as foreign exchange was diverted to preventing food shortages[111] Given the economic problems which was affecting his popularity by early 1936, Hitler felt the pressing need for a foreign policy triumph as a way of distracting public attention from the economy.[111]

In an interview with the French journalist Bertrand de Jouvenel in February 1936, Hitler appeared to disavow Mein Kampf by saying that parts of his book were now out of date and he was not guided by them, though precisely which parts were out of date was left unclear.[115] In March 1936, Hitler again violated the Versailles treaty by reoccupying the demilitarized zone in the Rhineland. When Britain and France did nothing, he grew bolder. In July 1936, the Spanish Civil War began when the military, led by General Francisco Franco, rebelled against the elected Popular Front government. After receiving an appeal for help from General Franco in July 1936, Hitler sent troops to support Franco, and Spain served as a testing ground for Germany's new forces and their methods. At the same time, Hitler continued with his efforts to create an Anglo-German alliance. In July 1936, he offered to Phipps a promise that if Britain were to sign an alliance with the Reich, then Germany would commit to sending twelve divisions to the Far East to protect British colonial possessions there from a Japanese attack.[116] Hitler's offer was refused.

In August 1936, in response to a growing crisis in the German economy caused by the strains of rearmament, Hitler issued the "Four-Year Plan Memorandum" ordering Hermann Göring to carry out the Four Year Plan to have the German economy ready for war within the next four years.[117] During the 1936 economic crisis, the German government was divided into two factions, with one (the so-called "free market" faction) centering around the Reichsbank President Hjalmar Schacht and the former Price Commissioner Dr. Carl Friedrich Goerdeler calling for decreased military spending and a turn away from autarkic policies, and another faction around Göring calling for the opposite. Supporting the "free-market" faction were some of Germany's leading business executives, most notably Hermann Duecher of AEG, Robert Bosch of Robert Bosch GmbH, and Albert Voegeler of Vereinigte Stahlwerke AG.[118] Hitler hesitated for the first half of 1936 before siding with the more radical faction in his "Four Year Plan" memo of August.[119] Historians such as Richard Overy have argued that the importance of the memo, which was written personally by Hitler, can be gauged by the fact that Hitler, who had something of a phobia about writing, hardly ever wrote anything down, which indicates that Hitler had something especially important to say.[120] The "Four-Year Plan Memorandum" predicated an imminent all-out, apocalyptic struggle between "Judo-Bolshevism" and German National Socialism, which necessitated a total effort at rearmament regardless of the economic costs.[121] In the memo, Hitler wrote:

Since the outbreak of the French Revolution, the world has been moving with ever increasing speed toward a new conflict, the most extreme solution of which is called Bolshevism, whose essence and aim, however, are solely the elimination of those strata of mankind which have hitherto provided the leadership and their replacement by worldwide Jewry. No state will be able to withdraw or even remain at a distance from this historical conflict . . . It is not the aim of this memorandum to prophesy the time when the untenable situation in Europe will become an open crisis. I only want, in these lines, to set down my conviction that this crisis cannot and will not fail to arrive and that it is Germany's duty to secure her own existence by every means in face of this catastrophe, and to protect herself against it, and that from this compulsion there arises a series of conclusions relating to the most important tasks that our people have ever been set. For a victory of Bolshevism over Germany would not lead to a Versailles treaty, but to the final destruction, indeed the annihilation of the German people . . . I consider it necessary for the Reichstag to pass the following two laws: 1) A law providing the death penalty for economic sabotage and 2) A law making the whole of Jewry liable for all damage inflicted by individual specimens of this community of criminals upon the German economy, and thus upon the German people.[122]

Hitler called for Germany to have the world's "first army" in terms of fighting power within the next four years and that "the extent of the military development of our resources cannot be too large, nor its pace too swift" (italics in the original) and the role of the economy was simply to support "Germany's self-assertion and the extension of her Lebensraum."[123][124] Hitler went on to write that given the magnitude of the coming struggle that the concerns expressed by members of the "free market" faction like Schacht and Goerdeler that the current level of military spending was bankrupting Germany were irrelevant. Hitler wrote that: "However well balanced the general pattern of a nation's life ought to be, there must at particular times be certain disturbances of the balance at the expense of other less vital tasks. If we do not succeed in bringing the German army as rapidly as possible to the rank of premier army in the world . . . then Germany will be lost!"[125] and "The nation does not live for the economy, for economic leaders, or for economic or financial theories; on the contrary, it is finance and the economy, economic leaders and theories, which all owe unqualified service in this struggle for the self-assertion of our nation."[118][clarification needed] Documents such as the Four Year Plan Memo have often used by right historians such as Henry Ashby Turner and Karl Dietrich Bracher who argue for a “primacy of politics” approach (that Hitler was not subordinate to German business, but rather the contrary was the case) against the “primacy of economics” approach championed by Marxist historians (that Hitler was a “agent” of and subordinate to German business).[126]

In August 1936, the freelance Nazi diplomat Joachim von Ribbentrop was appointed German Ambassador to the Court of St. James. Before Ribbentrop left to take up his post in October 1936, Hitler told him: “Ribbentrop . . . get Britain to join the Anti-Comintern Pact, that is what I want most of all. I have sent you as the best man I’ve got. Do what you can . . . But if in future all our efforts are still in vain, fair enough, then I’m ready for war as well. I would regret it very much, but if it has to be, there it is. But I think it would be a short war and the moment it is over, I will then be ready at any time to offer the British an honourable peace acceptable to both sides. However, I would then demand that Britain join the Anti-Comintern Pact or perhaps some other pact. But get on with it, Ribbentrop, you have the trumps in your hand, play them well. I’m ready at any time for an air pact as well. Do your best. I will follow your efforts with interest”.[127]
On 25 October 1936, an Axis was declared between Italy and Germany.

An Axis was declared between Germany and Italy by Count Galeazzo Ciano, foreign minister of Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini on 25 October 1936. On 25 November of the same year, Germany concluded the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. At the time of the signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact, invitations were sent out for Britain, China, Italy and Poland to adhere; of the invited powers only the Italians were to sign the pact, in November 1937. To strengthen relationship with Japan, Hitler met in 1937 in Nuremberg Prince Chichibu, a brother of emperor Hirohito. However, the meeting with Prince Chichibu had little consequence, as Hitler refused the Japanese request to halt German arms shipments to China or withdraw the German officers serving with the Chinese in the Second Sino-Japanese War. Both the military and the Auswärtiges Amt (Foreign Office) were strongly opposed to ending the informal German alliance with China that existed since the 1910s, and pressured Hitler to avoid offending the Chinese. The Auswärtiges Amt and the military both argued to Hitler that given the foreign exchange problems which afflicted German rearmament, and the fact that various Sino-German economic agreements provided Germany with raw materials that would otherwise use up precious foreign exchange, it was folly to seek an alliance with Japan that would have the inevitable result of ending the Sino-German alignment.

By the latter half of 1937, Hitler had abandoned his dream of an Anglo-German alliance, blaming "inadequate" British leadership for turning down his offers of an alliance.[128] In a talk with the League of Nations High Commissioner for the Free City of Danzig, the Swiss diplomat Carl Jacob Burckhardt in September 1937, Hitler protested what he regarded as British interference in the "German sphere" in Europe, though in the same talk, Hitler made clear his view of Britain as an ideal ally, which for pure selfishness was blocking German plans.[128]

Hitler had suffered severely from stomach pains and eczema in 1936–37, leading to his remark to the Nazi Party's propaganda leadership in October 1937 that because both parents died early in their lives, he would probably follow suit, leaving him with only a few years to obtain the necessary Lebensraum.[129][130] About the same time, Dr. Goebbels noted in his diary Hitler now wished to see the "Great Germanic Reich" he envisioned in his own lifetime rather than leaving the work of building the "Great Germanic Reich" to his successors.[131]

On 5 November 1937, at the Reich Chancellory, Adolf Hitler held a secret meeting with the War and Foreign Ministers and the three service chiefs, recorded in the Hossbach Memorandum, and stated his intentions for acquiring "living space" Lebensraum for the German people. He ordered the attendees to make plans for war in the east no later than 1943 in order to acquire Lebensraum. Hitler stated the conference minutes were to be regarded as his "political testament" in the event of his death.[132] In the memo, Hitler was recorded as saying that such a state of crisis had been reached in the German economy that the only way of stopping a severe decline in living standards in Germany was to embark sometime in the near-future on a policy of aggression by seizing Austria and Czechoslovakia.[133][134] Moreover, Hitler stated that the arms race meant that time for action had to occur before Britain and France obtained a permanent lead in the arms race.[133] A striking change in the Hossbach Memo was Hitler’s changed view of Britain from the prospective ally of 1928 in the Zweites Buch to the "hate-inspired antagonist" of 1937 in the Hossbach memo.[135] The historian Klaus Hildebrand described the memo as the start of an "ambivalent course" towards Britain while the late historian Andreas Hillgruber argued that Hitler was embarking on expansion "without Britain," preferably "with Britain," but if necessary "against Britain."[107][136]

Hitler's intentions outlined in the Hossbach memorandum led to strong protests from the Foreign Minister, Baron Konstantin von Neurath, the War Minister Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg and the Army Commander General Werner von Fritsch that any German aggression in Eastern Europe was bound to trigger a war with France because of the French alliance system in Eastern Europe, the so-called cordon sanitaire and if a Franco-German war broke out, then Britain was almost certain to intervene rather than risk the chance of a French defeat.[137] The aggression against Austria and Czechoslovakia were intended to be the first of a series of localized wars in Eastern Europe that would secure Germany’s position in Europe before the final showdown with Britain and France. Fritsch, Blomberg and Neurath all argue that Hitler was pursuing an extremely high risk strategy of localized wars in Eastern Europe that was most likely to cause a general war before Germany was ready for such a conflict, and advised Hitler to wait until Germany had more time to rearm. Neurath, Blomberg and Fritsch had no moral objections to German aggression, but rather based their opposition on the question of timing – determining the best time for aggression.[137]

Late in November 1937, Hitler received as his guest the British Lord Privy Seal, Lord Halifax who was visiting Germany ostensibly as part of a hunting trip. Speaking of changes to Germany's frontiers, Halifax told Hitler that: "All other questions fall into the category of possible alterations in the European order which might be destined to come about with the passage of time. Amongst these questions were Danzig, Austria and Czechoslovakia. England was interested to see that any alterations should come through the course of peaceful evolution and that the methods should be avoided which might cause far-reaching disturbances."[138] Significantly, Halifax made clear in his statements to Hitler, though whether Hitler appreciated the significance of this or not is unclear, that any possible territorial changes had to be accomplished peacefully, and that though Britain had no security commitments in Eastern Europe beyond the Covenant of the League of Nations, that Britain would not tolerate territorial changes via war.[139] Hitler seems to have misunderstood Halifax's remarks as confirming his conviction that Britain would just stand aside while he pursued his strategy of limited wars in Eastern Europe.

Hitler was most unhappy with the criticism of his intentions expressed by Neurath, Blomberg, and Fritsch in the Hossbach Memo, and in early 1938 asserted his control of the military-foreign policy apparatus through the Blomberg-Fritsch Affair, the abolition of the War Ministry and its replacement by the OKW, and by sacking Neurath as Foreign Minister on 4 February 1938, assuming the rank, role and tile of the Oberster Befehlshaber der Wehrmacht.[140] The British economic historian Richard Overy commented that the establishment of the OKW in February 1938 was a clear sign of what Hitler's intentions were since supreme headquarters organizations such as the OKW are normally set up during wartime, not peacetime.[141] The Official German history of World War II has argued that from early 1938 onwards, Hitler was not carrying out a foreign policy that had carried a high risk of war, but was carrying out a foreign policy aiming at war.

Main article: The Holocaust
An American soldier stands near a wagon piled high with corpses outside the crematorium in the newly liberated Buchenwald concentration camp

One of the foundations of Hitler's social policies was the concept of racial hygiene. It was based on the ideas of Arthur de Gobineau, a French count; eugenics, a pseudo-science that advocated racial purity; and social Darwinism. Applied to human beings, "survival of the fittest" was interpreted as requiring racial purity and killing off "life unworthy of life." The first victims were children with physical and developmental disabilities; those killings occurred in a programme dubbed Action T4.[143] After a public outcry, Hitler made a show of ending this program, but the killings in fact continued (see Nazi eugenics).

Between 1939 and 1945, the SS, assisted by collaborationist governments and recruits from occupied countries, systematically killed somewhere between 11 and 14 million people, including about six million Jews,[144][145] in concentration camps, ghettos and mass executions, or through less systematic methods elsewhere. In addition to those gassed to death, many died as a result of starvation and disease while working as slave labourers (sometimes benefiting private German companies). Along with Jews, non-Jewish Poles, Communists and political opponents, members of resistance groups, homosexuals, Roma, the physically handicapped and mentally retarded, Soviet prisoners of war (possibly as many as three million), Jehovah's Witnesses, Adventists, trade unionists, and psychiatric patients were killed. One of the biggest centres of mass-killing was the industrial extermination camp complex of Auschwitz-Birkenau. As far as is known, Hitler never visited the concentration camps and did not speak publicly about the killing in precise terms.[146]

The Holocaust (the Endlösung der jüdischen Frage or "Final Solution of the Jewish Question") was planned and ordered by leading Nazis, with Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich playing key roles. While no specific order from Hitler authorizing the mass killing has surfaced, there is documentation showing that he approved the Einsatzgruppen killing squads that followed the German army through Poland and Russia, and that he was kept well informed about their activities. The evidence also suggests that in the fall of 1941 Himmler and Hitler decided upon mass extermination by gassing. During interrogations by Soviet intelligence officers declassified over fifty years later, Hitler's valet Heinz Linge and his military aide Otto Gunsche said Hitler had "pored over the first blueprints of gas chambers." His private secretary, Traudl Junge, testified that Hitler knew all about the death camps.

To make for smoother cooperation in the implementation of this "Final Solution", the Wannsee conference was held near Berlin on 20 January 1942, with fifteen senior officials participating, led by Reinhard Heydrich and Adolf Eichmann. The records of this meeting provide the clearest evidence of planning for the Holocaust. On 22 February, Hitler was recorded saying to his associates, "we shall regain our health only by eliminating the Jews".

Early diplomatic triumphs
Alliance with Japan
Main article: German–Japanese relations
Japanese Foreign Minister Yosuke Matsuoka with Hitler in Berlin.

In February 1938, Hitler finally ended the dilemma that had plagued German Far Eastern policy, namely whether to continue the informal Sino-German alliance that existed with Republic of China since the 1910s or to create a new alliance with Japan. The military at the time strongly favored continuing Germany's alliance with China. China had the support of Foreign Minister Konstantin von Neurath and War Minister Werner von Blomberg, the so-called "China Lobby" who tried to steer German foreign policy away from war in Europe.[147] Both men, however, were sacked by Hitler in early 1938. Upon the advice of Hitler's newly appointed Foreign Minister, the strongly pro-Japanese Joachim von Ribbentrop, Hitler chose to end the alliance with China as the price of gaining an alignment with the more modern and powerful Japan. In an address to the Reichstag, Hitler announced German recognition of Manchukuo, the Japanese-occupied puppet state in Manchuria, and renounced the German claims to the former colonies in the Pacific held by Japan.[148] Hitler ordered an end to arm shipments to China, and ordered the recall of all the German officers attached to the Chinese Army.[148] In retaliation for ending German support to China in the war against Japan, Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek canceled all of the Sino-German economic agreements, which deprived the Germans of raw materials such as tungsten that the Chinese had previously provided. The ending of the Sino-German alignment increased the problems of German rearmament as the Germans were now forced to use their limited supply of foreign exchange to buy raw materials on the open market.
Austria and Czechoslovakia

In March 1938, Hitler pressured Austria into unification with Germany (the Anschluss) and made a triumphant entry into Vienna on 14 March.[149][150] Next, he intensified a crisis over the German-speaking Sudetenland districts of Czechoslovakia.[151]

On 3 March 1938, the British Ambassador Sir Neville Henderson met with Hitler and presented on behalf of his government a proposal for an international consortium to rule much of Africa (in which Germany would be assigned a leading role) in exchange for a German promise never to resort to war to change the frontiers.[152] Hitler, who was more interested in Lebensraum in Eastern Europe than in participating in international consortiums, rejected the British offer, using as his excuse that he wanted the former German African colonies returned to the Reich, not an international consortium running Central Africa. Moreover, Hitler argued that it was totally outrageous on Britain’s part to impose conditions on German conduct in Europe as the price for territory in Africa.[153] Hitler ended the conversation by telling Henderson he would rather wait 20 years for the return of the former colonies than accept British conditions for avoiding war.[153][154]

On 28–29 March 1938, Hitler held a series of secret meetings in Berlin with Konrad Henlein of the Sudeten Heimfront (Home Front), the largest of the ethnic German parties of the Sudetenland. During the Hitler-Henlein meetings, it was agreed that Henlein would provide the pretext for German aggression against Czechoslovakia by making demands on Prague for increased autonomy for Sudeten Germans that Prague could never be reasonably expected to fulfill. In April 1938, Henlein told the foreign minister of Hungary that “whatever the Czech government might offer, he would always raise still higher demands ... he wanted to sabotage an understanding by all means because this was the only method to blow up Czechoslovakia quickly”.[155] In private, Hitler considered the Sudeten issue unimportant; his real intentions being to use the Sudeten question as the justification both at home and abroad for a war of aggression to destroy Czechoslovakia, under the grounds of self-determination, and Prague’s refusal to meet Henlein’s demands.[156] Hitler’s plans called for a massive military build-up along the Czechoslovak border, relentless propaganda attacks about the supposed ill treatment of the Sudetenlanders, and finally, “incidents” between Heimfront activists and the Czechoslovak authorities to justify an invasion that would swiftly destroy Czechoslovakia in a few days campaign before other powers could act.[157] Since Hitler wished to have the fall harvest brought in as much as possible, and to complete the so-called “West Wall” to guard the Rhineland, the date for the invasion was chosen for late September or early October 1938.[158]

In April 1938, Hitler ordered the OKW to start preparing plans for Fall Grün (Case Green), the codename for an invasion of Czechoslovakia.[159] Further increasing the tension in Europe was the May Crisis of 19–22 May 1938. The May Crisis of 1938 was a false alarm caused by rumors that Czechoslovakia would be invaded the weekend of the municipal elections in that country, erroneous reports of major German troop movements along the Czechoslovak border just prior to the elections, the killing of two ethnic Germans by the Czechoslovak police, and Ribbentrop's highly bellicose remarks to Henderson when the latter asked the former if an invasion was indeed scheduled for the weekend, which led to a partial Czechoslovak mobilization and firm warnings from London against a German move against Czechoslovakia before it was realized that no invasion was intended for that weekend.[160] Though no invasion had been planned for May 1938, it was believed in London that such a course of action was indeed being considered in Berlin, leading to two warnings on 21 May and 22 May that the United Kingdom would go to war with Germany if France became involved in a war with Germany.[161] Hitler, for his part, was, to use the words of an aide, highly “furious” with the perception that he had been forced to back down by the Czechoslovak mobilization and the warnings from London and Paris, when he had, in fact, been planning nothing for that weekend.[162] Though plans had already been drafted in April 1938 for an invasion of Czechoslovakia in the near future, the May Crisis and the perception of a diplomatic defeat further reinforced Hitler in his chosen course. The May Crisis seemed to have had the effect of convincing Hitler that expansion "without Britain" was not possible, and expansion "against Britain" was the only viable course.[163] In the immediate aftermath of the May crisis, Hitler ordered an acceleration of German naval building beyond the limits of the A.G.N.A., and in the "Heye memorandum", drawn at Hitler's orders, envisaged the Royal Navy for the first time as the principal opponent of the Kriegsmarine.[164]

At the conference of 28 May 1938, Hitler declared that it was his "unalterable" decision to "smash Czechoslovakia" by 1 October of the same year, which was explained as securing the eastern flank "for advancing against the West, England and France.[165] At the same conference, Hitler expressed his belief that Britain would not risk a war until British rearmament was complete, which Hitler felt would be around 1941–42, and Germany should in a series of wars eliminate France and her allies in Europe in the interval in the years 1938–41 while German rearmament was still ahead.[165] Hitler's determination to go through with Fall Grün in 1938 provoked a major crisis in the German command structure.[166] The Chief of the General Staff, General Ludwig Beck protested in a lengthy series of memos that Fall Grün would start a world war that Germany would lose, and urged Hitler to put off the projected war.[166] Hitler called Beck's arguments against war "kindische Kräfteberechnugen" ("childish calculations").[167]

On 4 August 1938, a secret Army meeting was held at which Beck read his report. They agreed something had to be done to prevent certain disaster. Beck hoped they would all resign together but no one resigned except Beck. However his replacement, General Franz Halder, sympathised with Beck and together they conspired with several top generals, Admiral Wilhelm Canaris (Chief of German Intelligence), and Graf von Helldorf (Berlin's Police Chief) to arrest Hitler the moment he gave the invasion order. However, the plan would only work if both Britain and France made it known to the world that they would fight to preserve Czechoslovakia. This would help to convince the German people that certain defeat awaited Germany. Agents were therefore sent to England to tell Chamberlain that an attack on Czechoslovakia was planned and their intentions to overthrow Hitler if this occurred. However the messengers were not taken seriously by the British. In September, Chamberlain and Daladier decided not to threaten a war over Czechoslovakia and so the planned removal of Hitler could not be justified.[168] The Munich Agreement therefore preserved Hitler in power.

Starting in August 1938, information reached London that Germany was beginning to mobilize reservists, together with information leaked by anti-war elements in the German military that the war was scheduled for sometime in September.[169] Finally, as a result of intense French, and especially British diplomatic pressure, President Edvard Beneš unveiled on 5 September 1938, the “Fourth Plan” for constitutional reorganization of his country, which granted most of the demands for Sudeten autonomy made by Henlein in his Karlsbad speech of April 1938, and threatened to deprive the Germans of their pretext for aggression.[170] Henlein’s Heimfront promptly responded to the offer of “Fourth Plan” by having a series of violent crashes with the Czechoslovak police, culminating in major clashes in mid-September that led to the declaration of martial law in certain Sudeten districts.[171][172] In a response to the threatening situation, in late August 1938, the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain had conceived of Plan Z, namely to fly to Germany, meet Hitler, and then work out an agreement that could end the crisis.[173][174] On 13 September 1938, Chamberlain offered to fly to Germany to discuss a solution to the crisis. Chamberlain had decided to execute Plan Z in response to erroneous information supplied by the German opposition that the invasion was due to start any time after 18 September.[175] Though Hitler was not happy with Chamberlain’s offer, he agreed to see the British Prime Minister because to refuse Chamberlain’s offer would confirm the lie to his repeated claims that he was a man of peace driven reluctantly to war because of Beneš’s intractability.[176] In a summit at Berchtesgaden, Chamberlain promised to pressure Beneš into agreeing to Hitler's publicly stated demands about allowing the Sudetenland to join Germany, in return for a reluctant promise by Hitler to postpone any military action until Chamberlain had given a chance to fulfill his promise.[177] Hitler had agreed to the postponement out of the expectation that Chamberlain would fail to secure Prague’s consent to transferring the Sudetenland, and was, by all accounts, most disappointed when Franco-British pressure secured just that.[178] The talks between Chamberlain and Hitler in September 1938 were made difficult by their innately differing concepts of what Europe should look like, with Hitler aiming to use the Sudeten issue as a pretext for war and Chamberlain genuinely striving for a peaceful solution.[179]

When Chamberlain returned to Germany on 22 September to present his peace plan for the transfer of the Sudetenland at a summit with Hitler at Bad Godesberg, the British delegation was most unpleasantly surprised to have Hitler reject his own terms he had presented at Berchtesgaden as now unacceptable.[180] To put an end to Chamberlain’s peace-making efforts once and for all, Hitler demanded the Sudetenland be ceded to Germany no later then 28 September 1938 with no negotiations between Prague and Berlin and no international commission to oversee the transfer; no plebiscites to be held in the transferred districts until after the transfer; and for good measure, that Germany would not forsake war as an option until all the claims against Czechoslovakia by Poland and Hungary had been satisfied.[181] The differing views between the two leaders were best symbolized when Chamberlain was presented with Hitler’s new demands and protested at being presented with an ultimatum, leading Hitler in turn to retort that because his document stating his new demands was entitled “Memorandum”, it could not possibly be an ultimatum.[182] On 25 September 1938 Britain rejected the Bad Godesberg ultimatum, and began preparations for war.[183][184] To further underline the point, Sir Horace Wilson, the British government’s Chief Industrial Advisor, and a close associate of Chamberlain, was dispatched to Berlin to inform Hitler that if the Germans attacked Czechoslovakia, then France would honor her commitments as demanded by the Franco-Czechoslovak alliance of 1924, and “then England would feel honor bound, to offer France assistance”.[185] Initially, determined to continue with attack planned for 1 October 1938, sometime between 27 and 28 September, Hitler changed his mind, and asked to take up a suggestion, of and through the intercession of Mussolini, for a conference to be held in Munich with Chamberlain, Mussolini, and the French Premier Édouard Daladier to discuss the Czechoslovak situation.[186] Just what had caused Hitler to change his attitude is not entirely clear, but it is likely that the combination of Franco-British warnings, and especially the mobilization of the British fleet, had finally convinced him of what the most likely result of Fall Grün would be; the minor nature of the alleged casus belli being the timetables for the transfer made Hitler appear too much like the aggressor; the view from his advisors that Germany was not prepared either militarily or economically for a world war; warnings from the states that Hitler saw as his would-be allies in the form of Italy, Japan, Poland and Hungary that they would not fight on behalf of Germany; and very visible signs that the majority of Germans were not enthusiastic about the prospect of war.[187][188][189] Moreover, Germany lacked sufficient supplies of oil and other crucial raw materials (the plants that would produce the synthetic oil for the German war effort were not in operation yet), and was highly dependent upon imports from abroad.[190] The Kriegsmarine reported that should war come with Britain, it could not break a British blockade, and since Germany had hardly any oil stocks, Germany would be defeated for no other reason than a shortage of oil.[191] The Economics Ministry told Hitler that Germany had only 2.6 million tons of oil at hand, and should war with Britain and France, would require 7.6 million tons of oil.[192] Starting on 18 September 1938, the British refused to supply metals to Germany, and on 24 September the Admiralty forbade British ships to sail to Germany. The British detained the tanker Invershannon carrying 8,600 tons of oil to Hamburg, which caused immediate economic pain in Germany.[193] Given Germany's dependence on imported oil (80% of German oil in the 1930s came from the New World), and the likelihood that a war with Britain would see a blockade cutting Germany off from oil supplies, historians have argued that Hitler's decision to see a peaceful end to call off Fall Grün was due to concerns about the oil problem.[190]
Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler and Mussolini at the Munich Conference

On 30 September 1938, a one-day conference was held in Munich attended by Hitler, Chamberlain, Daladier and Mussolini that led to the Munich Agreement, which gave in to Hitler's ostensible demands by handing over the Sudetenland districts to Germany.[194] Since London and Paris had already agreed to the idea of a transfer of the disputed territory in mid-September, the Munich Conference mostly comprised discussions in one day of talks on technical questions about how the transfer of the Sudetenland would take place, and featured the relatively minor concessions from Hitler that the transfer would take place over a ten day period in October, overseen by an international commission, and Germany would wait until Hungarian and Polish claims were settled.[195] At the end of the conference, Chamberlain had Hitler sign a declaration of Anglo-German friendship, to which Chamberlain attached great importance and Hitler none at all.[196] Though Chamberlain was well-satisfied with the Munich conference, leading to his infamous claim to have secured “peace in our time”, Hitler was privately furious about being “cheated” out of the war he was desperate to have in 1938.[197][198] As a result of the summit, Hitler was TIME magazine's Man of the Year for 1938.[199]
Hitler enters the German populated Sudetenland region of Czechoslavakia in October 1938 which was annexed to Germany proper due to the Munich agreement

By appeasing Hitler, Britain and France left Czechoslovakia to Hitler's mercy.[194] Though Hitler professed happiness in public over the achievement of his ostensible demands, in private he was determined to have a war the next time around by ensuring that Germany's future demands would not be met.[200] In Hitler’s view, a British-brokered peace, though extremely favorable to the ostensible German demands, was a diplomatic defeat which proved that Britain needed to be ended as a power to allow him to pursue his dreams of eastern expansion.[201][202] In the aftermath of Munich, Hitler felt since Britain would not ally herself nor stand aside to facilitate Germany’s continental ambitions, it had become a major threat, and accordingly, Britain replaced the Soviet Union in Hitler’s mind as the main enemy of the Reich, with German policies being accordingly reoriented.[203][204][205][206] Hitler expressed his disappointment over the Munich Agreement in a speech on 9 October 1938 in Saarbrücken when he lashed out against the Conservative anti-appeasers Winston Churchill, Alfred Duff Cooper and Anthony Eden, whom Hitler described as a warmongering anti-German fraction, who would attack Germany at the first opportunity, and were likely to come to power at any moment.[207] In the same speech, Hitler claimed “We Germans will no longer endure such governessy interference. Britain should mind her own business and worry about her own troubles”.[208] In November 1938, Hitler ordered a major anti-British propaganda campaign to be launched with the British being loudly abused for their "hypocrisy" in maintaining world-wide empire while seeking to block the Germans from acquiring an empire of their own.[209] A particular highlight in the anti-British propaganda was alleged British humans rights abuses in dealing with the Arab uprising in the Palestine Mandate and in India, and the "hyprocrisy" of British criticism of the November 1938 Kristallnacht event.[210] This marked a huge change from the earlier years of the Third Reich, when the German media had portrayed the British Empire in very favorable terms.[211] In November 1938, the Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop was ordered to convert the Anti-Comintern Pact into an open anti-British military alliance, as a prelude for a war against Britain and France.[212] On 27 January 1939, Hitler approved the Z Plan, a five-year naval expansion program which called for a Kriegsmarine of 10 battleships, four aircraft carriers, three battlecruisers, eight heavy cruisers, 44 light cruisers, 68 destroyers and 249 U-boats by 1944 that was intended to crush the Royal Navy.[213] The importance of the Z Plan can be seen in Hitler's orders that henceforward the Kriegsmarine was to go from third to one in allotment of raw materials, money and skilled workers.[214] In the spring of 1939, the Luftwaffe was ordered to start building a strategic bombing force that was meant to level British cities.[215] Hitler’s war plans against Britain called for a joint Kriegsmarine-Luftwaffe offensive that was to stage "rapid annihilating blows" against British cities and shipping with the expectation that "The moment England is cut off from her supplies she is forced to capitulate" as Hitler expected that the experience of living in a blockaded, famine-stricken, bombed out island to be too much for the British public.[216]
Destroyed Jewish businesses in Magdeburg following Kristallnacht

In November 1938, in a secret speech to a group of German journalists, Hitler noted that he had been forced to speak of peace as the goal in order to attain the degree of rearmament "which were an essential prerequisite ... for the next step".[88] In the same speech, Hitler complained that his peace propaganda of the last five years had been too successful, and it was time for the German people to be subjected to war propaganda.[217] Hitler stated: "It is self-evident that such peace propaganda conducted for a decade has its risky aspect; because it can too easily induce people to come to the conclusion that the present government is identical with the decision and with the intention to keep peace under all circumstances", and instead called for new journalism that "had to present certain foreign policy events in such a fashion that the inner voice of the people itself slowly begins to shout out for the use of force."[217] In later November 1938, Hitler expressed his frustration with his more cautious advice he was receiving from some quarters[218] Hitler called the economic expert Carl Friedrich Goerdeler, General Ludwig Beck, Dr. Hjalmar Schacht, the diplomat Ulrich von Hassell, and the economist Rudolf Brinkmann as “the overbred intellectual circles" whom were trying to block him from fulifilling his mission by their appeals to caution, and but for the fact that he needed their skills "otherwise, perhaps we could someday exterminate them or do something of this kind to them"[219]

In December 1938, the Chancellery of the Führer headed by Philipp Bouhler received a letter concerning a severely physically and mentally disabled baby girl named Sofia Knauer living in Leipzig.[220] At that time, there was a furious rivalry existing between Bouhler’s office, the office of the Reich Chancellery led by Hans-Heinrich Lammers, the Presidential Chancellery of Otto Meissner, the office of Hitler’s adjutant Wilhelm Brückner and the Deputy Führer's office which was effectively headed by Martin Borman over control over access to Hitler.[221] As part of a power play against his rivals, Bouhler presented the letter concerning the disabled girl to Hitler, who thanked Bouhler for bringing the matter to his attention and responded by ordering his personal physician Dr. Karl Brandt to kill Knauer.[222] In January 1939, Hitler ordered Bouhler and Dr. Brandt to henceforward have all disabled infants born in Germany killed.[222] This was the origin of the Action T4 program. Subsequently Dr. Brandt and Bouhler acting on their own initiative, in the expectation of winning Hitler’s favor, expanded the T4 program to killing, first, all physically or mentally disabled children in Germany, and, second, all disabled adults.[223]

In late 1938 and early 1939, the continuing economic crisis caused by problems of rearmament, especially the shortage of foreign hard currencies needed to pay for raw materials Germany lacked together with reports from Göring that the Four Year Plan was hopelessly behind schedule forced Hitler in January 1939 to reluctantly order major defense cuts with the Wehrmacht having its steel allocations cut by 30%, aluminum 47%, cement 25%, rubber 14% and copper 20%.[224] On 30 January 1939, Hitler made his "Export or die" speech calling for a German economic offensive ("export battle", to use Hitler's term), to increase German foreign exchange holdings to pay for raw materials such high-grade iron needed for military materials.[224] The "Export or die" speech of 30 January 1939 is also known as Hitler’s "Prophecy Speech". The name which that speech is known comes from Hitler’s "prophecy" issued towards the end of the speech:

"One thing I should like to say on this day which may be memorable for others as well for us Germans: In the course of my life I have very often been a prophet, and I usually been ridiculed for it. During the time of my struggle for power it was in the first instance the Jewish race which only received my prophecies with laughter when I said I would one day take over the leadership of the State, and it that of the whole nation, and I that I would then among many other things settle the Jewish problem. Their laughter was uproarious, but I think that for some time now they have been laughing on the other side of the face. Today I will be once more the prophet. If the international Jewish financiers outside Europe should succeed in plunging the nations once more into a world war, then the result will not be the bolsheviszation of the earth, and thus the victory of Jewry, but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe!"[225]

A significant historical debate has swung around the “Prophecy Speech”. Historians who take an intentionist line such as Eberhard Jäckel have argued that at minimum from the time of the “Prophecy Speech” onwards, Hitler was committed to genocide of the Jews as his central goal.[226] Lucy Dawidowicz and Gerald Fleming have argued that the "Prophecy Speech" was simply Hitler's way of saying that once he started a world war, he would use that war as a cover for his already pre-existing plans for genocide.[225] Functionalist historianssuch as Christopher Browning have dismissed this interpretation under the grounds that if Hitler were serious with the intentions expressed in the “Prophecy Speech”, then why the 30-month “stay of execution” between the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, and the opening of the first Vernichtungslager in late 1941.[227] In addition, Browning has pointed to the existence of the Madagascar Plan of 1940–41 and various other schemes as proof that there was no genocidal master plan.[227] In Browning’s opinion, the "Prophecy Speech" was merely an manifestation of bravado on Hitler’s part, and had little connection with actual unfolding of anti-Semitic policies.[227]

At least part of the reason why Hitler violated the Munich Agreement by seizing the Czech half of Czechoslovakia in March 1939 was to obtain Czechoslovak assets to help with the economic crisis.[228] Hitler ordered Germany's army to enter Prague on 15 March 1939, and from Prague Castle proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate.
Start of the Second World War
Adolf Hitler's face on a German stamp 1944. The country's name has changed to the Greater German Reich since 1943 and this name can be seen on the stamp.

As part of the anti-British course, it was deemed necessary by Hitler to have Poland either a satellite state or otherwise neutralized. Hitler believed this necessary both on strategic grounds as a way of securing the Reich's eastern flank and on economic grounds as a way of evading the effects of a British blockade.[229] Initially, the German hope was to transform Poland into a satellite state, but by March 1939 the German demands had been rejected by the Poles three times, which led Hitler to decide upon the destruction of Poland as the main German foreign policy goal of 1939.[230] On 3 April 1939, Hitler ordered the military to start preparing for Fall Weiss (Case White), the plan for a German invasion to be executed on 25 August 1939.[230] In August 1939, Hitler spoke to his generals that his original plan for 1939 had to “... establish an acceptable relationship with Poland in order to fight against the West” but since the Poles would not co-operate in setting up an “acceptable relationship” (i.e. becoming a German satellite), he believed he had no choice other than wiping Poland off the map.[231] The historian Gerhard Weinberg has argued since Hitler's audience comprised men who were all for the destruction of Poland (anti-Polish feelings were traditionally very strong in the German Army), but rather less happy about the prospect of war with Britain and France, if that was the price Germany had to pay for the destruction of Poland, it is quite likely that Hitler was speaking the truth on this occasion.[231] In his private discussions with his officials in 1939, Hitler always described Britain as the main enemy that had to be defeated, and in his view, Poland's obliteration was the necessary prelude to that goal by securing the eastern flank and helpfully adding to Germany's Lebensraum.[232] Hitler was much offended by the British “guarantee” of Polish independence issued on 31 March 1939, and told his associates that "I shall brew them a devil's drink".[233] In a speech in Wilhelmshaven for the launch of the Admiral Tirpitz battleship on 1 April 1939, Hitler threatened to denounce the A.G.N.A. if the British persisted with their "encirclement" policy as represented by the "guarantee" of Polish independence.[233] As part of the new course, in a speech before the Reichstag on 28 April 1939, Adolf Hitler, complaining of British “encirclement" of Germany, renounced both the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact.

As a pretext for aggression against Poland, Hitler claimed the Free City of Danzig and the right for “extra-territorial” roads across the Polish Corridor which Germany had unwillingly ceded under the Versailles treaty. For Hitler, Danzig was just a pretext for aggression as the Sudetenland had been intended to be in 1938, and throughout 1939, while highlighting the Danzig issue as a grievance, the Germans always refused to engage in talks about the matter.[234] A notable contradiction existed in Hitler's plans between the long-term anti-British course, whose major instruments such as a vastly expanded Kriegsmarine and Luftwaffe would take several years to complete, and Hitler's immediate foreign policy in 1939, which was likely to provoke a general war by engaging in such actions as attacking Poland.[235][236] Hitler's dilemma between his short-term and long-term goals was resolved by Foreign Minister Ribbentrop, who told Hitler that neither Britain nor France would honor their commitments to Poland, and any German–Polish war would accordingly be a limited regional war.[237][238] Ribbentrop based his appraisal partly on an alleged statement made to him by the French Foreign Minister Georges Bonnet in December 1938 that France now recognized Eastern Europe as Germany's exclusive sphere of influence.[239] In addition, Ribbentrop's status as the former Ambassador to London made him in Hitler's eyes the leading Nazi British expert, and as a result, Ribbentrop's advice that Britain would not honor her commitments to Poland carried much weight with Hitler.[239] Ribbentrop only showed Hitler diplomatic cables that supported his analysis.[240] In addition, the German Ambassador in London, Herbert von Dirksen, tended to send reports that supported Ribbentrop's analysis such as a dispatch in August 1939 that reported Neville Chamberlain knew “the social structure of Britain, even the conception of the British Empire, would not survive the chaos of even a victorious war”, and so would back down.[238] The extent that Hitler was influenced by Ribbentrop's advice can be seen in Hitler's orders to the German military on 21 August 1939 for a limited mobilization against Poland alone.[241] Hitler chose late August as his date for Fall Weiss in order to limit disruption to German agricultural production caused by mobilization.[242] The problems caused by the need to begin a campaign in Poland in late August or early September in order to have the campaign finished before the October rains arrived, and the need to have sufficient time to concentrate German troops on the Polish border left Hitler in a self-imposed situation in August 1939 where Soviet co-operation was absolutely crucial if he were to have a war that year.[242]

The Munich agreement appeared to be sufficient to dispel most of the remaining hold which the "collective security" idea may have had in Soviet circles,[243] and, on 23 August 1939, Joseph Stalin accepted Hitler's proposal to conclude a non-aggression pact (the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact), whose secret protocols contained an agreement to partition Poland. A major historical debate about the reasons for Hitler’s foreign policy choices in 1939 concerns whether a structural economic crisis drove Hitler into a “flight into war” as claimed by the Marxist historian Timothy Mason or whether Hitler’s actions were more influenced by non-economic factors as claimed by the economic historian Richard Overy.[244] Historians such as William Carr, Gerhard Weinberg and Ian Kershaw have argued that a non-economic reason for Hitler’s rush to war was Hitler’s morbid and obsessive fear of an early death, and hence his feeling that he did not have long to accomplish his work.[130][245][246] In the last days of peace, Hitler oscillated between the determination to fight the Western powers if he had to, and various schemes intended to keep Britain out of the war, but in any case, Hitler was not to be deterred from his aim of invading Poland.[247] Only very briefly, when news of the Anglo-Polish alliance being signed on 25 August 1939 in response to the German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (instead of the severing of ties between London and Warsaw predicted by Ribbentrop) together with news from Italy that Mussolini would not honor the Pact of Steel, caused Hitler to postpone the attack on Poland from 25 August to 1 September.[248] Hitler chose to spend the last days of peace either trying to maneuver the British into neutrality through his offer of 25 August 1939 to “guarantee” the British Empire, or having Ribbentrop present a last-minute peace plan to Henderson with an impossibly short time limit for its acceptance as part of an effort to blame the war on the British and Poles.[249][250] On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded western Poland. Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September but did not immediately act. Hitler was most unpleasantly surprised at receiving the British declaration of war on 3 September 1939, and turning to Ribbentrop angrily asked “Now what?”[251] Ribbentrop had nothing to say other than that Robert Coulondre, the French Ambassador, would probably be by later that day to present the French declaration of war.[251] Not long after this, on 17 September, Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland.[252]
Members of the Reichstag greet Hitler in October 1939 after the conclusion of the Polish campaign
Hitler and Benito Mussolini in Munich, 1940
Adolf Hitler in Paris, 1940, with Albert Speer (left) and Arno Breker (right)
“ Poland never will rise again in the form of the Versailles treaty. That is guaranteed not only by Germany, but also ... Russia.[253] ”

– Adolf Hitler in a public speech in Danzig at the end of September 1939.

After the fall of Poland came a period journalists called the "Phoney War". In part of north-western Poland annexed to Germany, Hitler instructed the two Gauleiters in charge of the area, namely Albert Forster and Arthur Greiser, to “Germanize” the area, and promised them "There would be no questions asked" about how this "Germanization" was to be accomplished.[254] Hitler's orders were interpreted in very different ways by Forster and Greiser. Forster followed a policy of simply having the local Poles sign forms stating they had German blood with no documentation required, whereas Greiser carried out a brutal ethnic cleansing campaign of expelling the entire Polish population into the Government-General of Poland.[255] When Greiser, seconded by Himmler, complained to Hitler that Forster was allowing thousands of Poles to be accepted as “racial” Germans and thus "contaminating" German “racial purity”, and asked Hitler to order Forster to stop, Hitler merely told Himmler and Greiser to take up their difficulties with Forster, and not to involve him.[256] Hitler’s handling of the Forster–Greiser dispute has often been advanced as an example of Ian Kershaw's theory of “Working Towards the Führer”, namely that Hitler issued vague instructions, and allowed his subordinates to work out policy on their own.

After the conquest of Poland, another major dispute broke out between different factions with one centering around Reichsfüherer SS Heinrich Himmler and Arthur Greiser championing and carrying out ethnic cleansing schemes for Poland, and another centering around Hermann Göring and Hans Frank calling for turning Poland into the "granary" of the Reich.[257] At a conference held at Göring's Karinhall estate on 12 February 1940, the dispute was settled in favor of the Göring-Frank view of economic exploitation, and ending mass expulsions as economically disruptive.[257] On 15 May 1940, Himmler showed Hitler a memo entitled "Some Thoughts on the Treatment of Alien Population in the East", which called for expelling the entire Jewish population of Europe into Africa and reducing the remainder of the Polish population to a “"leaderless laboring class".[257] Hitler called Himmler's memo "good and correct".[257] Hitler’s remark had the effect of scuttling the so-called Karinhall argreement, and led to the Himmler–Greiser viewpoint triumphing as German policy for Poland.

During this period, Hitler built up his forces on Germany's western frontier. In April 1940, German forces invaded Denmark and Norway. In May 1940, Hitler's forces attacked France, conquering Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Belgium in the process. These victories persuaded Benito Mussolini of Italy to join the war on Hitler's side on 10 June 1940. France surrendered on 22 June 1940.

Britain, whose forces evacuated France by sea from Dunkirk, continued to fight alongside other British dominions in the Battle of the Atlantic. After having his overtures for peace rejected by the British, now led by Winston Churchill, Hitler ordered bombing raids on the United Kingdom. The Battle of Britain was Hitler's prelude to a planned invasion. The attacks began by pounding Royal Air Force airbases and radar stations protecting South-East England. However, the Luftwaffe failed to defeat the Royal Air Force. On 27 September 1940, the Tripartite Treaty was signed in Berlin by Saburo Kurusu of Imperial Japan, Hitler, and Ciano. The purpose of the Tripartite Treaty, which was directed against an unnamed power that was clearly meant to be the United States, was to deter the Americans from supporting the British. It was later expanded to include Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria. They were collectively known as the Axis Powers. By the end of October 1940, air superiority for the invasion Operation Sealion could not be assured, and Hitler ordered the bombing of British cities, including London, Plymouth, and Coventry, mostly at night.

In the Spring of 1941, Hitler was distracted from his plans for the East by various activites in North Africa, the Balkans, and the Middle East. In February, German forces arrived in Libya to bolster the Italian forces there. In April, he launched the invasion of Yugoslavia which was followed quickly by the invasion of Greece. In May, German forces were sent to support Iraqi rebel forces fighting against the British and to invade Crete. On 23 May, Hitler released Fuhrer Directive No. 30.[258]
Path to defeat

On 22 June 1941, three million German troops attacked the Soviet Union, breaking the non-aggression pact Hitler had concluded with Stalin two years earlier. A major historical dispute concerns Hitler's reasons for Operation Barbarossa. Some historians such as Andreas Hillgruber have argued that Barbarossa was merely one "stage" of Hitler's Stufenplan (stage by stage plan) for world conquest, which Hillgruber believed that Hitler had formulated in the 1920s.[259] Other historians such as John Lukacs have contended that Hitler never had a stufenplan, and that the invasion of the Soviet Union was an ad hoc move on the part of Hitler due to Britain's refusal to surrender.[260] Lukacs has argued that the reason Hitler gave in private for Barbarossa, namely that Winston Churchill held out the hope that the Soviet Union might enter the war on the Allied side, and that the only way of forcing a British surrender was to eliminate that hope, was indeed Hitler's real reason for Barbarossa.[261] In Lukacs's perspective, Barbarossa was thus primarily an anti-British move on the part of Hitler intended to force Britain to sue for peace by destroying her only hope of victory rather than an anti-Soviet move. Klaus Hildebrand has maintained that Stalin and Hitler were independently planning to attack each other in 1941.[262] Hildebrand has claimed that the news in the spring of 1941 of Soviet troop concentrations on the border led to Hitler engaging in a flucht nach vorn ("flight forward" – i.e. responding to a danger by charging on rather than retreating.)[262] A third fraction comprising a diverse group such as Viktor Suvorov, Ernst Topitsch, Joachim Hoffmann, Ernst Nolte, and David Irving have argued that the official reason given by the Germans for Barbarossa in 1941 was the real reason, namely that Barbarossa was a "preventive war" forced on Hitler to avert an impeding Soviet attack scheduled for July 1941. This theory has been widely attacked as erroneous; the American historian Gerhard Weinberg once compared the advocates of the preventive war theory to believers in "fairy tales"[263]

This invasion seized huge amounts of territory, including the Baltic states, Belarus, and Ukraine. It also encircled and destroyed many Soviet forces, which Stalin had ordered not to retreat. However, the Germans were stopped barely short of Moscow in December 1941 by the Russian winter and fierce Soviet resistance. The invasion failed to achieve the quick triumph Hitler wanted. On 18 December 1941, the appointment book of the Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler shows he met with Hitler, where to in answer to Himmler's question "What to do with the Jews of Russia?", Hitler's response is recorded as "als Partisanen auszurotten" ("exterminate them as partisans").[264] The Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer has commented that the remark recorded in Himmler’s book is probably as close historians will ever get to a definitive order from Hitler for the Holocaust.[264]
Adolf Hitler in Reichstag during his speech against Franklin D. Roosevelt. 11 December 1941.
The destroyed 'Wolf's Lair' barracks after the 20 July 1944 plot

Hitler's declaration of war against the United States on 11 December 1941, four days after the Empire of Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii and six days after Nazi Germany's closest approach to Moscow, set him against a coalition that included the world's largest empire (the British Empire), the world's greatest industrial and financial power (the United States), and the world's largest army (the Soviet Union).

In late 1942, German forces were defeated in the second battle of El Alamein, thwarting Hitler's plans to seize the Suez Canal and the Middle East. In February 1943, the Battle of Stalingrad ended with the destruction of the German 6th Army. Thereafter came the Battle of Kursk. Hitler's military judgment became increasingly erratic, and Germany's military and economic position deteriorated along with Hitler's health, as indicated by his left hand's severe trembling. Hitler's biographer Ian Kershaw and others believe that he may have suffered from Parkinson's disease.[265] Syphilis has also been suspected as a cause of at least some of his symptoms, although the evidence is slight.[266]

Following the allied invasion of Sicily (Operation Husky) in 1943, Mussolini was deposed by Pietro Badoglio, who surrendered to the Allies. Throughout 1943 and 1944, the Soviet Union steadily forced Hitler's armies into retreat along the Eastern Front. On 6 June 1944, the Western Allied armies landed in northern France in what was one of the largest amphibious operations in history, Operation Overlord. Realists in the German army knew defeat was inevitable, and some plotted to remove Hitler from power. In July 1944, Claus von Stauffenberg planted a bomb in Hitler's Führer Headquarters, the Wolfsschanze (Wolf's Lair) at Rastenburg, but Hitler narrowly escaped death. He ordered savage reprisals, resulting in the executions of more than 4,900 people,[267] sometimes by starvation in solitary confinement followed by slow strangulation. The main resistance movement was destroyed, although smaller isolated groups continued to operate.
Defeat and death
Main article: Death of Adolf Hitler

By late 1944, the Red Army had driven the Germans back into Central Europe and the Western Allies were advancing into Germany. Hitler realized that Germany had lost the war, but allowed no retreats. He hoped to negotiate a separate peace with America and Britain, a hope buoyed by the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt on 12 April 1945.[268][269][270][271] Hitler's stubbornness and defiance of military realities allowed the Holocaust to continue. He ordered the complete destruction of all German industrial infrastructure before it could fall into Allied hands, saying that Germany's failure to win the war forfeited its right to survive.[272] Rather, Hitler decided that the entire nation should go down with him. Execution of this scorched earth plan was entrusted to arms minister Albert Speer, who disobeyed the order.[272]

In April 1945, Soviet forces attacked the outskirts of Berlin. Hitler's followers urged him to flee to the mountains of Bavaria to make a last stand in the National Redoubt. But Hitler was determined to either live or die in the capital.

On 20 April, Hitler celebrated his 56th birthday in the Führerbunker ("Führer's shelter") below the Reichskanzlei (Reich Chancellery). The garrison commander of the besieged Festung Breslau ("fortress Breslau"), General Hermann Niehoff, had chocolates distributed to his troops in honor of Hitler's birthday.[273]

By 21 April, Georgi Zhukov's 1st Belorussian Front had broken through the defenses of German General Gotthard Heinrici's Army Group Vistula during the Battle of the Seelow Heights. The Soviets were now advancing towards Hitler's bunker with little to stop them. Ignoring the facts, Hitler saw salvation in the ragtag units commanded by Waffen SS General Felix Steiner. Steiner's command became known as Armeeabteilung Steiner ("Army Detachment Steiner"). But "Army Detachment Steiner" existed primarily on paper. It was something more than a corps but less than an army. Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the northern flank of the huge salient created by the breakthrough of Zhukov's 1st Belorussian Front. Meanwhile, the German Ninth Army, which had been pushed south of the salient, was ordered to attack north in a pincer attack.

Late on 21 April, Heinrici called Hans Krebs chief of the Oberkommando des Heeres (Supreme Army Command or OKH) and told him that Hitler's plan could not be implemented. Heinrici asked to speak to Hitler but was told by Krebs that Hitler was too busy to take his call.

On 22 April, during one of his last military conferences, Hitler interrupted the report to ask what had happened to General Steiner's offensive. There was a long silence. Then Hitler was told that the attack had never been launched, and that the withdrawal from Berlin of several units for Steiner's army, on Hitler's orders, had so weakened the front that the Russians had broken through into Berlin. Hitler asked everyone except Wilhelm Keitel, Hans Krebs, Alfred Jodl, Wilhelm Burgdorf, and Martin Bormann to leave the room,[274] and launched a tirade against the perceived treachery and incompetence of his commanders. This culminated in an oath to stay in Berlin, head up the defense of the city, and shoot himself at the end.[275]

Before the day ended, Hitler again found salvation in a new plan that included General Walther Wenck's Twelfth Army.[276] This new plan had Wenck turn his army – currently facing the Americans to the west – and attack towards the east to relieve Berlin.[276] Twelfth Army was to link up with Ninth Army and break through to the city. Wenck did attack and, in the confusion, managed to make temporary contact with the Potsdam garrison. But the link with the Ninth Army, like the plan in general, was ultimately unsuccessful.[277]

On 23 April, Joseph Goebbels made the following proclamation to the people of Berlin:

I call on you to fight for your city. Fight with everything you have got, for the sake of your wives and your children, your mothers and your parents. Your arms are defending everything we have ever held dear, and all the generations that will come after us. Be proud and courageous! Be inventive and cunning! Your Gauleiter is amongst you. He and his colleagues will remain in your midst. His wife and children are here as well. He, who once captured the city with 200 men, will now use every means to galvanize the defense of the capital. The Battle for Berlin must become the signal for the whole nation to rise up in battle ...[274]

The same day, second in command of the Third Reich and commander of the Luftwaffe Hermann Göring sent a telegram from Berchtesgaden in Bavaria. Göring argued that, since Hitler was cut off in Berlin, he should assume leadership of Germany as Hitler's designated successor. Göring mentioned a time limit after which he would consider Hitler incapacitated.[278] Hitler responded, in anger, by having Göring arrested. Later when Hitler wrote his will on 29 April, Göring was removed from all his positions in the government.[278][279][280] Further on the 23 April, Hitler appointed General der Artillerie Helmuth Weidling as the commander of the Berlin Defense Area. Weidling replaced Lieutenant General (Generalleutnant) Helmuth Reymann and Colonel (Oberst) Ernst Kaether. Hitler also appointed Waffen SS General (SS Brigadeführer) Wilhelm Mohnke the (Kommandant) Battle Commander for the defense of the government sector (Zitadelle sector) that included the Reich Chancellery and Führerbunker.

By the end of the day on 27 April, Berlin was completely cut off from the rest of Germany.

On 28 April, Hitler discovered that SS leader Heinrich Himmler was trying to discuss surrender terms with the Western Allies (through the Swedish diplomat Count Folke Bernadotte).[281] Hitler ordered Himmler's arrest and had Himmler's representative in Berlin Hermann Fegelein shot.[279][282]
Cover of US military newspaper The Stars and Stripes, May 1945

During the night of 28 April, General Wenck reported that his Twelfth Army had been forced back along the entire front. Wenck noted that no further attacks towards Berlin were possible. General Alfred Jodl (Supreme Army Command) did not provide this information to Hans Krebs in Berlin until early in the morning of 30 April.

On 29 April, Hitler dictated his will and political statement to his private secretary, Traudl Junge.[283] Hans Krebs, Wilhelm Burgdorf, Joseph Goebbels, and Martin Bormann witnessed and signed this last will and testament of Adolf Hitler.[279] On the same day, Hitler was informed of the violent death of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini on 28 April, which is presumed to have increased his determination to avoid capture.[284]

On 30 April 1945, after intense street-to-street combat, when Soviet troops were within a block or two of the Reich Chancellery, Hitler committed suicide, shooting himself in the temple while simultaneously biting into a cyanide capsule.[285][286][287] Hitler's body and that of Eva Braun were put in a bomb crater,[288][289] doused in gasoline by SS Sturmbannführer Otto Günsche and other Führerbunker aides, and set alight as the Red Army advanced and shelling continued.[285]

On 2 May, Berlin surrendered. In the postwar years there were conflicting reports about what happened to Hitler's remains. After the fall of the Soviet Union it was revealed from records in the Soviet archives that the bodies of Hitler, Eva Braun, Joseph and Magda Goebbels, the six Goebbels children, General Hans Krebs and Hitler's dogs, were secretly buried in graves near Rathenow in Brandenburg.[290] In 1970, the remains were disinterred, cremated and scattered in the Elbe River by the Soviets.[291][292] According to the Russian Federal Security Service, a fragment of human skull stored in its archives and displayed to the public in a 2000 exhibition came from the remains of Hitler's body and is all that remains of Hitler. The authenticity of the skull has been challenged by historians and researchers.[293] DNA analysis conducted in 2009 showed the skull fragment to be that of a woman under the age of 40.[294]
Legacy
Further information: Consequences of German Nazism and Neo-Nazism
Outside the building in Braunau am Inn, Austria where Adolf Hitler was born is a memorial stone warning of the horrors of World War II
“ "What manner of man is this grim figure who has performed these superb toils and loosed these frightful evils?" – Winston Churchill in Great Contemporaries (1935) ”

Hitler, the Nazi Party and the results of Nazism are typically regarded as gravely immoral. Historians, philosophers, and politicians have often applied the word evil in both a secular sense of the word and in a religious sense. Historical and cultural portrayals of Hitler in the west are overwhelmingly condemnatory. The display of swastikas or other Nazi symbols is prohibited in Germany and Austria. Holocaust denial is prohibited in both countries.

Outside of Hitler's birthplace in Braunau am Inn, Austria is a stone marker engraved with the following message:

FÜR FRIEDEN FREIHEIT
UND DEMOKRATIE
NIE WIEDER FASCHISMUS
MILLIONEN TOTE MAHNEN

Loosely translated it reads: "For peace, freedom // and democracy // never again fascism // millions of dead remind [us]"

However, some people have referred to Hitler's legacy in neutral or favourable terms. Former Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat spoke of his 'admiration' of Hitler in 1953, when he was a young man, though it is possible he was speaking in the context of a rebellion against the British Empire.[295] Louis Farrakhan has referred to him as a "very great man".[296] Bal Thackeray, leader of the right-wing Hindu Shiv Sena party in the Indian state of the Maharashtra, declared in 1995 that he was an admirer of Hitler.[297] Friedrich Meinecke, the German historian, said of Hitler's life that "it is one of the great examples of the singular and incalculable power of personality in historical life".[298]
Religious beliefs
Main article: Adolf Hitler's religious beliefs

Hitler was raised by Roman Catholic parents, but after he left home, he never attended Mass or received the sacraments.[299] However, after he had moved to Germany, where the Catholic and the Protestant church are largely financed through a church tax collected by the state, Hitler (like Goebbels) never "actually left his church or refused to pay church taxes. In a nominal sense therefore," the historian Steigmann-Gall states, Hitler "can be classified as Catholic."[300] But, as Steigmann-Gall has also pointed out in the debate about religion in Nazi Germany: "Nominal church membership is a very unreliable gauge of actual piety in this context."[301]

In public, Hitler often praised Christian heritage, German Christian culture, and professed a belief in an Aryan Jesus Christ, a Jesus who fought against the Jews.[302] In his speeches and publications Hitler spoke of his interpretation of Christianity as a central motivation for his antisemitism, stating that "As a Christian I have no duty to allow myself to be cheated, but I have the duty to be a fighter for truth and justice."[303][304] His private statements, as reported by his intimates, are more mixed, showing Hitler as a religious man but critical of traditional Christianity.[305] Here Hitler made at least one attack against Catholicism that "resonated Streicher's contention that the Catholic establishment was allying itself with the Jews."[306] In light of these private statements, for John S. Conway and many other historians it is beyond doubt that Hitler held a "fundamental antagonism" towards the Christian churches.[307] The various accounts of Hitler's private statements vary strongly in their reliability; Most importantly, Hermann Rauschning's Hitler speaks is considered by most historians to be an invention.[308][309] An overview about Hitler's religious beliefs, based on his apparent private statements, can be found in the acclaimed book by Michael Rißmann or in Richard Steigmann-Gall's controversial book on Nazism and Christianity, pp. 252–259.

In the political relations with the churches in Germany however, Hitler readily adopted a strategy "that suited his immediate political purposes".[307] Hitler had a general plan, even before the rise of the Nazis to power, to destroy Christianity within the Reich.[310][311][312] The leader of the Hitler Youth stated "the destruction of Christianity was explicitly recognized as a purpose of the National Socialist movement" from the start, but "considerations of expedience made it impossible" publicly to express this extreme position.[310]

Some writers believe that, in contrast to some Nazi ideologues, Hitler did not adhere to esoteric ideas, occultism, or Ariosophy,[305] and he ridiculed such beliefs in Mein Kampf.[313][314] Others believe the young Hitler was strongly influenced, particularly in his racial views, by an abundance of occult works on the mystical superiority of the Germans, like the occult and anti-semitic magazine Ostara, and give credence to the claim of its publisher Lanz von Liebenfels that Hitler visited Liebenfels in 1909 and praised his work.[315] The historians are still divided on the question of the reliability of Lanz' claim of a contact with Hitler.[316] Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke considers his account reliable, Brigitte Hamann leaves the question open and Ian Kershaw is extremely sceptical.[317]

Hitler for a time advocated for Germans a form of the Christian faith he called "Positive Christianity",[313][318] a belief system purged of what he objected to in orthodox Christianity, and featuring added racist elements. By 1940 however, it was public knowledge that Hitler had abandoned advocating for Germans even the syncretist idea of a positive Christianty.[319] Hitler maintained that the "terrorism in religion is, to put it briefly, of a Jewish dogma, which Christianity has universalized and whose effect is to sow trouble and confusion in men's minds."[320]

In addition to not attending Mass or receiving the sacraments, Hitler favored aspects of Protestantism if they were more amenable to his own objectives. At the same time, he adopted some elements of the Catholic Church's hierarchical organization, liturgy and phraseology in his politics.[321][322]

Hitler expressed admiration for the Muslim military tradition and directed Himmler to initiate Muslim SS Divisions as a matter of policy.[323] According to one confidant, Hitler stated in private, "The Mohammedan religion too would have been much more compatible to us than Christianity. Why did it have to be Christianity with its meekness and flabbiness ..."[324]

Hitler once stated, "We do not want any other god than Germany itself. It is essential to have fanatical faith and hope and love in and for Germany."[325]
Health
Main articles: Adolf Hitler's medical health and Adolf Hitler's vegetarianism

Hitler's health has long been the subject of debate. He has variously been said to have had irritable bowel syndrome, skin lesions, irregular heartbeat, Parkinson's disease,[266] syphilis,[266] Asperger syndrome[326][327] and a strongly suggested addiction to methamphetamine. He had problems with his teeth and his personal dentist Hugo Blaschke stated that he fitted a large dental bridge to his upper jaw in 1933 and that on 10 November 1944 he carried out surgery to cut off part of the bridge due to a gum infection that was causing him severe toothache. He reported that he was also suffering from a sinus infection[328]

After the early 1930s, Hitler generally followed a vegetarian diet, although he ate meat on occasion. There are reports of him disgusting his guests by giving them graphic accounts of the slaughter of animals in an effort to make them shun meat.[329] A fear of cancer (from which his mother died) is the most widely cited reason, though many authors[who?] also assert Hitler had a profound and deep love of animals[citation needed]. Martin Bormann had a greenhouse constructed for him near the Berghof (near Berchtesgaden) to ensure a steady supply of fresh fruit and vegetables for Hitler throughout the war. Photographs of Bormann's children tending the greenhouse survive and, by 2005, its foundations were among the only ruins visible in the area that was associated with Nazi leaders.

Hitler was a non-smoker and promoted aggressive anti-smoking campaigns throughout Germany. He reportedly promised a gold watch to any of his close associates who quit (and gave a few away). Several witness accounts relate that, immediately after his suicide was confirmed, many officers, aides, and secretaries in the Führerbunker lit cigarettes.[330]
Sexuality
Main article: Sexuality of Adolf Hitler

Hitler presented himself publicly as a man without a domestic life, dedicated entirely to his political mission.

He had a fiancée in the 1920s, Mimi Reiter, and later had a mistress, Eva Braun. He had a close bond with his half-niece Geli Raubal, which some commentators have claimed was sexual, though there is no evidence that proves this.[331] According to John Toland (in his book A.H.: a Definitive Biography), Hitler would often visit Geli in the manner of a suitor, and restricted his niece's movement unless she was chaperoned by him. All three women attempted suicide (two succeeded), a fact that has led to speculation that Hitler may have had sexual fetishes, such as urolagnia, as was claimed by Otto Strasser, a political opponent of Hitler. Reiter, the only one to survive the Nazi regime, denied this.[332] During the war and afterwards psychoanalysts offered numerous inconsistent psycho-sexual explanations of his pathology.[333] Some theorists have claimed that Hitler had a relationship with British fascist Unity Mitford.[334] More recently, Lothar Machtan has argued in his book, The Hidden Hitler, that Hitler was homosexual.
Family
Main article: Hitler (disambiguation)

Paula Hitler, the last living member of Adolf Hitler's immediate family, died in 1960.

The most prominent and longest-living direct descendants of Adolf Hitler's father, Alois, was Adolf's nephew William Patrick Hitler. With his wife Phyllis, he eventually moved to Long Island, New York, changed his last name, and had four sons. None of William Hitler's children have had any children of their own.

Over the years, various investigative reporters have attempted to track down other distant relatives of the Führer. Many are now alleged to be living inconspicuous lives and have long since changed their last name.
Adolf Hitler's genealogy

* Klara Hitler, mother
* Alois Hitler, father
* Alois Hitler, Jr., half-brother
* Angela Hitler Raubal, half-sister
* Bridget Dowling, sister-in-law
* Eva Braun, mistress and then wife
* Geli Raubal, niece
* Gretl Braun, sister-in-law through Hitler's marriage to Eva Braun
* Heinz Hitler, nephew
* Hermann Fegelein, brother-in-law through Hitler's marriage to Eva Braun
* Ilse Braun, sister-in-law through Hitler's marriage to Eva Braun
* Johann Georg Hiedler, presumed grandfather
* Johann Nepomuk Hiedler, maternal great-grandfather, presumed great uncle and possibly Hitler's true paternal grandfather
* Leo Raubal Jr, nephew
* Maria Schicklgruber, grandmother
* Paula Hitler, sister
* William Patrick Hitler, nephew

Hitler in media
Adolf Hitler at Berchtesgaden.ogg
Play video
Video of Adolf Hitler at Berchtesgaden
See also: Adolf Hitler in popular culture
Oratory and rallies
Main article: List of speeches given by Adolf Hitler

Hitler was a gifted orator who captivated many with his beating of the lectern and growling, emotional speech. He honed his skills by giving speeches to soldiers during 1919 and 1920. He became adept at telling people what they wanted to hear (the stab-in-the-back, the Jewish-Marxist plot to conquer the world, and the betrayal of Germany in the Versailles treaty) and identifying a scapegoat for their plight. Over time, Hitler perfected his delivery by rehearsing in front of mirrors and carefully choreographing his display of emotions. He was coached by a self-styled clairvoyant who focused on hand and arm gestures. Munitions minister and architect Albert Speer, who may have known Hitler as well as anyone, said that Hitler was above all else an actor.[335][336]

Massive Nazi rallies staged by Speer were designed to spark a process of self-persuasion for the participants. By participating in the rallies, by marching, by shouting heil, and by making the stiff armed salute, the participants strengthened their commitment to the Nazi movement. This process can be appreciated by watching Leni Riefenstahl's Triumph of the Will, which presents the 1934 Nuremberg Rally. The camera shoots Hitler from on high and from below, but only twice head-on. These camera angles give Hitler a Christ-like aura. Some of the people in the film are paid actors, but most of the participants are not. Whether the film itself recruited new Nazis out of theater audiences is unknown. The process of self-persuasion may have affected Hitler. He gave the same speech (though it got smoother and smoother with repetition) hundreds of times first to soldiers and then to audiences in beer halls. These performances may have made his hatreds more intense, especially his all-consuming hatred of the Jews.
Hitler and Baron Mannerheim (June 1942)
Recorded in private conversation

Hitler visited Finnish Field Marshal Mannerheim on 4 June 1942. During the visit an engineer of the Finnish broadcasting company YLE, Thor Damen, recorded Hitler and Mannerheim in conversation, something which had to be done secretly since Hitler never allowed recordings of him off-guard.[337] Today the recording is the only known recording of Hitler not speaking in an official tone. The recording captures 11½ minutes of the two leaders in private conversation.[338] Hitler speaks in a slightly excited, but still intellectually detached manner during this talk (the speech has been compared to that of the working class). The majority of the recording is a monologue by Hitler. In the recording, Hitler admits to underestimating the Soviet Union's ability to conduct war.
Patria picture disc

Adolf Hitler even released a 7" picture disc with one of his speeches. Known as the Patria (Fatherland) picture disc, the obverse bears an image of Hitler giving a speech and has a recording of both a speech by Hitler and also Party Member Hans Hinkel. The reverse bears a hand holding a swastika flag and the Carl Woitschach recording (1933 – Telefunken A 1431) "In Dem Kampf um die Heimat – Faschistenmarsch".
Documentaries during the Third Reich

Hitler appeared in and was involved to varying degrees with a series of films by the pioneering filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl via Universum Film AG (UFA):

* Der Sieg des Glaubens (Victory of Faith, 1933).
* Triumph des Willens (Triumph of the Will, 1934), co-produced by Hitler.
* Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht (Day of Freedom: Our Armed Forces, 1935).
* Olympia (1938).

Hitler was the central figure of the first three films; they focused on the party rallies of the respective years and are considered propaganda films. Hitler also featured prominently in the Olympia film. Whether the latter is a propaganda film or a true documentary is still a subject of controversy, but it nonetheless perpetuated and spread the propagandistic message of the 1936 Olympic Games depicting Nazi Germany as a prosperous and peaceful country.[339] As a prominent politician, Hitler was featured in many newsreels.
Television

Hitler's attendance at various public functions, including the 1936 Olympic Games and Nuremberg Rallies, appeared on television broadcasts made between 1935 and 1939. These events, along with other programming highlighting activity by public officials, were often repeated in public viewing rooms. Samples from a number of surviving television films from Nazi Germany were included in the 1999 documentary Das Fernsehen unter dem Hakenkreuz (Television Under the Swastika).
Documentaries post Third Reich

* The World at War (1974): a Thames Television series which contains much information about Hitler and Nazi Germany, including an interview with his secretary, Traudl Junge.
* Adolf Hitler's Last Days: from the BBC series "Secrets of World War II" tells the story about Hitler's last days during World War II.
* The Nazis: A Warning From History (1997): six-part BBC TV series on how the cultured and educated Germans accepted Hitler and the Nazis up to its downfall. Historical consultant is Ian Kershaw.
* Cold War (1998): a CNN series about the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. The series begins with World War II footage, including Hitler, and how the Cold War began in earnest after Germany surrendered.
* Im toten Winkel – Hitlers Sekretärin (Blind Spot: Hitler's Secretary) (2002): an exclusive 90 minute interview with Traudl Junge, Hitler's secretary. Made by Austrian Jewish director André Heller shortly before Junge's death from lung cancer, Junge recalls the last days in the Berlin bunker. Clips of the interview were used in Downfall.
* Undergångens arkitektur (The Architecture of Doom) (1989): documentary about the National Socialist aesthetic as envisioned by Hitler.
* Das Fernsehen unter dem Hakenkreuz (Television Under the Swastika) (1999): documentary by Michael Kloft about the domestic use of television in Nazi Germany for propaganda purposes from 1935 to 1944.
* Ruins of the Reich (2007): four-part series of the Rise and Fall of Hitler's Reich and its effects, created by Third Reich historian R.J. Adams

Films

* The Death of Adolf Hitler, a British (7 January 1973) made-for-television production, starring Frank Finlay. The movie depicts the last days of Hitler.
* Hitler: The Last Ten Days (1973): movie depicting the days leading up to Adolf Hitler's death, starring Sir Alec Guinness.
* Hans-Jürgen Syberberg's Hitler – Ein Film aus Deutschland (Hitler: A Film from Germany) (1977): a seven-hour work in four parts. The director uses documentary clips, photographic backgrounds, puppets, theatrical stages, and other elements.[340]
* The Bunker (1981): a U.S. made-for-television movie describing the last days in the Führerbunker from 17 January 1945 to 2 March 1945. The film stars Sir Anthony Hopkins.
* Europa, Europa (1990): based on the true story of a German Jew who joined the Hitler Youth in order to avoid capture. Hitler is portrayed by Ryszard Pietruski.
* Fatherland (1994): a hypothetical view of Germany in 1964, had Hitler won World War 2, adapted from the novel by former journalist Robert Harris.
* The Empty Mirror (1996): a psychodrama which speculates on the events following Hitler (portrayed by Norman Rodway) surviving the fall of Nazi Germany.
* Moloch (1999): Hitler portrayed by Leonid Mozgovoy in a fictional drama set at his Berghof Retreat in the Bavarian Alps.
* Max (2002): fictional drama depicting a friendship between Jewish art dealer Max Rothman (John Cusack) and a young Adolf Hitler (Noah Taylor) as a failed painter in Vienna.
* Hitler: The Rise of Evil (2003): two-part TV series about the early years of Adolf Hitler and his rise to power (up to 1933), starring Robert Carlyle.
* Der Untergang (Downfall) (2004): German movie about the last days of Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich, starring Bruno Ganz. This film is partly based on the autobiography of Traudl Junge, a favorite secretary of Hitler's. In 2002, Junge said she felt great guilt for "... liking the greatest criminal ever to have lived."
* Valkyrie (2008): Hitler, played by David Bamber, is portrayed as a target of the famous assassination plot by Stauffenberg.
* Dr Freud Will See You Now Mr Hitler (2008): radio drama by Laurence Marks and Maurice Gran presenting an imagined scenario in which Sigmund Freud treats the young Hitler. Toby Jones played Hitler.

Sukarno. The First President of Indonesia

2010-01-04T21:24:00.000-08:00

The spelling "Sukarno" is frequently used in English as it is based on the newer official spelling in Indonesia since 1947 but the older spelling Soekarno is still frequently used, mainly because he signed his name in the old spelling. Official Indonesian presidential decrees from the period 1947-1968, however, printed his name using the 1947 spelling. The Soekarno-Hatta International Airport which serves near Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia for example, still uses the older spelling.

Indonesians also remember him as Bung Karno or Pak Karno.[1] Like many Javanese people, he had only one name; in religious contexts, he was occasionally referred to as 'Achmed Sukarno'.

The son of a Javanese primary school teacher, an aristocrat named Raden Soekemi Sosrodihardjo and his Balinese wife named Ida Ayu Nyoman Rai from Buleleng regency, Sukarno was born as Kusno Sosrodihardjo in Blitar, East Java in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). Following Javanese custom, he was renamed after a childhood illness. He was admitted into a Dutch-run school as a child. When his father sent him to Surabaya in 1916 to attend a secondary school, he met Tjokroaminoto, a future nationalist. In 1921 he began to study at the Technische Hogeschool (Technical Institute) in Bandung. He studied civil engineering and focused on architecture.

Atypically, even among the colony's small educated elite, Sukarno was fluent in several languages. In addition to the Javanese language of his childhood, he was a master of Sundanese, Balinese and of Indonesian, and especially strong in Dutch. He was also quite comfortable in German, English, French, Arabic, and Japanese, all of which were taught at his HBS. He was helped by his photographic memory and precocious mind.

In his studies, Sukarno was "intensely modern," both in architecture and in politics. Sukarno interpreted these ideas in his dress, in his urban planning for the capital (eventually Jakarta), and in his socialist politics, though he did not extend his taste for modern art to pop music; he had Koes Plus imprisoned for their allegedly decadent lyrics despite his reputation for womanising. For Sukarno, modernity was blind to race, neat and Western in style, and anti-imperialist.

Sukarno became a leader of a pro-independence party, Partai Nasional Indonesia, when it was founded in 1927. He opposed imperialism and capitalism because he thought both systems worsened the life of Indonesian people.

He also hoped that Japan would commence a war against the western powers and that Java could then gain its independence with Japan's aid. He was arrested in 1929 by Dutch colonial authorities and sentenced to two years in prison. By the time he was released, he had become a popular hero. He was arrested several times during the 1930s and was in exile when Japan occupied the archipelago in 1942.

n early 1929, during the Indonesian National Revival, Sukarno and fellow Indonesian nationalist leader Mohammad Hatta (later Vice President), first foresaw a Pacific War and the opportunity that a Japanese advance on Indonesia might present for the Indonesian independence cause.[5] In February 1942 Imperial Japan invaded the Dutch East Indies quickly overrunning outmatched Dutch forces who marched, bussed and trucked Sukarno three hundred kilometres to Padang, Sumatra. They intended keeping him prisoner, but abruptly abandoned him to save themselves.[6]

The Japanese had their own files on Sukarno and approached him with respect wanting to use him to organise and pacify the Indonesians. Sukarno on the other hand wanted to use the Japanese to free Indonesia: "The Lord be praised, God showed me the way; in that valley of the Ngarai I said: Yes, Independent Indonesia can only be achieved with Dai Nippon...For the first time in all my life, I saw myself in the mirror of Asia."[7]

Subsequently, indigenous forces across both Sumatra and Java aided the Japanese against the Dutch but would not cooperate in the supply of the aviation fuel which was essential for the Japanese war effort. Desperate for local support in supplying the volatile cargo, Japan now brought Sukarno back to Jakarta. He helped the Japanese in obtaining its aviation fuel and forced labor conscripts, called kerja paksa in Indonesian and Romusha in Japanese. Sukarno was lastingly ashamed of his role with the romusha.[8] He also was involved with Peta and Heiho (Javanese volunteer army troops) via speeches broadcast on the Japanese radio and loud speaker networks across Java. By mid-1945 these units numbered around two million, and were preparing to defeat any Allied forces sent to re-take Java.

On November 10, 1943 Sukarno was decorated by the Emperor of Japan in Tokyo. He also became head of Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia (BPUPKI), the Japanese-organized committee through which Indonesian independence was later gained. On 7 September 1944, with the war going badly for the Japanese, Prime Minister Koiso promised independence for Indonesia, although no date was set.[9] This announcement was seen, according to the U.S. official history, as immense vindication for Sukarno's apparent collaboration with the Japanese.[10] The U.S. at the time considered Sukarno one of the "foremost collaborationist leaders." [Kolko, Gabriel. The Politics of War. p607]

Following the Japanese surrender, Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta, and Dr. Radjiman Wediodiningrat were summoned by Marshal Terauchi, Commander-in-Chief of Japan's Southern Expeditionary Forces in Saigon. Sukarno initially hesitated in declaring Indonesia's independence. He and Mohammad Hatta were kidnapped by Indonesian youth groups to Rengasdengklok, west of Jakarta. Finally Sukarno and Hatta declared the independence of the Republic of Indonesia on August 17, 1945.

Sukarno's vision for the 1945 Indonesian constitution comprised the Pancasila (Sanskrit - five principles). Sukarno's political philosophy, Marhaenism, was guided by (in no particular order) elements of Marxism, nationalism and Islam. This is reflected in the Pancasila, in the order in which he originally espoused them in a speech on June 1, 1945[11]:

1. Nationalism (with a focus on national unity)
2. Internationalism ('one nation sovereign amongst equals')
3. Representative democracy (all significant groups represented)
4. Social Justice (Marxist influenced)
5. Theism (with a secular slant)

In the same speech, he argued that all of the principles of the nation could be summarized in the phrase gotong royong.[12] The Indonesian parliament, founded on the basis of this original (and subsequently revised) constitution, proved all but ungovernable. This was due to irreconcilable differences between various social, political, religious and ethnic factions.[13]

Sukarno's government initially postponed the formation of a national army, for fear of antagonizing the Allied occupation forces and their doubt over whether they would have been able to form an adequate military apparatus to maintain control of seized territory. The various militia groups at that time were encouraged to join the BKR -- Badan Keamanan Rakyat (The People's Security Organization) -- itself a subordinate of the "War Victims Assistance Organization". It was only in October 1945 that the BKR was reformed into the TKR – Tentara Keamanan Rakyat (The People's Security Army) in response to the increasing Dutch presence in Indonesia. In the ensuing chaos between various factions and Dutch attempts to re-establish colonial control, Dutch troops captured Sukarno in December 1948, but were forced to release him after the ceasefire. He returned to Jakarta in December 28, 1949. At this time, Indonesia adopted a new federal constitution that made the country a federal state. This was replaced by another provisional constitution in 1950 that restored a unitary form of government. Both constitutions were parliamentary in nature, which—on paper—limited presidential power. However, even with his formally reduced role, he commanded a good deal of moral authority as Father of the Nation.

Sukarno's government was not universally accepted in Indonesia. Indeed, many factions and regions attempted to separate themselves from his government, and there were several internal conflicts even during the period of armed insurgency against the Dutch. One such example is the leftist-backed coup attempt by elements of the military in Madiun, East Java in 1948, in which many supporters of communism were allegedly executed.

There were further attempts of military coups against Sukarno in 1956, including the PRRI-Permesta rebellion in Sulawesi supported by the CIA, during which an American aviator, Allen Lawrence Pope, operating in support of the rebels was shot down and captured.

Sukarno resented his figurehead position and used the increasing disorder to intervene more in the country's political life. Claiming Western-style democracy was unsuitable for Indonesia, he called for a system of "guided democracy" based on what he called traditional Indonesian principles. The Indonesian way of deciding important questions, he argued, was by way of prolonged deliberation designed to achieve a consensus. He proposed a government based not only on political parties but on "functional groups" composed of the nation's basic elements, in which a national consensus could express itself under presidential guidance.

During this later part of his presidency, Sukarno came to increasingly rely on the army and the support of the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).

In the 1950s he increased his ties to the People's Republic of China and admitted more Communists into his government. He also began to accept increasing amounts of Soviet bloc military aid. This aid, however, was surpassed by military aid from the Eisenhower Administration, which worried about a leftward drift should Sukarno rely too much on Soviet bloc aid. However, Sukarno increasingly attempted to forge a new alliance called the "New Emerging Forces", as a counter to the old superpowers, whom he accused of spreading "Neo-Colonialism, Colonialism and Imperialism" (NEKOLIM). His political alliances gradually shifted towards Asian powers such as the PRC and North Korea. In 1961, this first president of Indonesia also found another political alliance, an organization, called the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM, in Indonesia known as Gerakan Non-Blok, GNB) with Egypt's President Gamal Abdel Nasser, India's Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Yugoslavia's President Josip Broz Tito, and Ghana's President Kwame Nkrumah, in an action called The Initiative of Five (Sukarno, Nkrumah, Nasser, Tito, and Nehru). This action was a movement to not give any favour to the two superpower blocs, who were involved in the Cold War.

The Bandung Conference was held in 1955, with the goal of uniting developing Asian and African countries into a non-aligned movement to counter against the competing superpowers at the time. In order to increase Indonesia's prestige, Sukarno supported and won the bid for the 1962 Asian Games held in Jakarta. Many sporting facilities such as the Senayan sports complex (now Bung Karno Stadium), and supporting infrastructure were built to accommodate the games. There was political tension when the Indonesians refused the entry of delegations from Israel and Taiwan.

On November 30, 1957, an assassination attempt was made by grenade attack against Sukarno when he was visiting a school in Cikini, Central Jakarta. Six children were killed, but Sukarno did not suffer any serious wounds. In December he ordered the nationalization of 246 Dutch businesses. In February he began a crackdown on the PRRI rebels at Bukittinggi.

These PRRI rebels, a mix of anti-communist and Islamic movements, received arms and aid from Western sources, including the CIA, until J. Allan Pope, an American pilot, was shot down after a bombing raid in northern Indonesia in 1958. The CIA sent arms to rebel movements on Sumatra as well as Sulawesi. The downing of this pilot, together with impressive victories of government forces against the PRRI, evoked a shift in US policy, leading to closer ties with Sukarno as well as Major General Abdul Haris Nasution, the head of the army and the most powerful anti-communist in the Jakarta government.

Sukarno also established government control over media and book publishing as well as laws discriminating against Chinese permanent residents (China Totok). On July 5, 1959 he reestablished the 1945 constitution by presidential edict. It established a presidential system which he believed would make it easier to implement the principles of guided democracy. He called the system Manifesto Politik or Manipol—but was actually government by decree. He sent his opponents to internal exile.

In March 1960 Sukarno dissolved the elected Assembly (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat) and replaced it with an appointed Assembly—the Gotong Royong Parliament.

In August Sukarno broke off diplomatic relations with the Netherlands over Dutch New Guinea (West Papua.) After West Papua declared itself independent in December 1961, Sukarno ordered raids on West Irian (Dutch New Guinea). There were more assassination attempts when he visited Sulawesi in 1962. West Irian was brought under Indonesian authority in May 1963 under the Bunker Plan.

In July of the same year People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat) proclaimed Sukarno as President for Life.

Sukarno also opposed the British-supported Federation of Malaysia, claiming that it was a neocolonial plot to advance British interests. In spite of his political overtures, which was partly justified when some political elements in British Borneo territories Sarawak and Brunei opposed the Federation plan and aligned themselves with Sukarno, Malaysia was proclaimed in September 1963. This led to the Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation (Konfrontasi) and the end of remaining US military aid to Indonesia. Sukarno withdrew Indonesia from the UN membership in 1965 when, with US backing, the nascent Federation of Malaysia took a seat of UN Security Council. Sukarno's increasing illness was demonstrated when he collapsed in public in August 9, 1965, and he was secretly diagnosed with kidney disease.

On the night of 30 September 1965, six of Indonesia's most senior generals were killed by a movement calling themselves the "30 September Movement" (G30S) which claimed to be in control of the government. Major General Suharto, commander of the Army's strategic reserves, took control of the army the following morning.[15] Suharto issued an ultimatum to the Halim Air Force Base, where the G30S had based themselves and where Sukarno (the reasons for his presence are unclear and were subject of claim and counter-claim), Air Marshal Omar Dhani and Aidit had gathered. By the following day, it was clear that the incompetently organised and poorly coordinated coup had failed.[16] By 2 October, Suharto's faction was firmly in control of the army. Sukarno's obedience to Suharto's 1 October ultimatum to leave Halim is seen as changing all power relationships.[17] Sukarno's fragile balance of power between the military, political Islam, communists, and nationalists that underlay his "Guided Democracy" was now collapsing.[16]

In early October, a military propaganda campaign began to sweep the country, successfully convincing both Indonesian and international audiences that it was a Communist coup, and that the murders were cowardly atrocities against Indonesian heroes.[18] The PKI's denials of involvement had little effect.[19] The army led a campaign to purge Indonesian society, government and armed forces of the communist party and other leftist organisations. Leading PKI members were immediately arrested, some summarily executed.[18] The purge quickly spread from Jakarta to the rest of the country, and the worst massacres were in Java and Bali.[19] (see: Indonesian killings of 1965–66) The situation varied across the country; in some areas the army organised civilian groups and local militias, in other areas communal vigilante action preceded the army.[20] The most widely accepted estimates are that at least half a million were killed.[21] Many others were also imprisoned and for the next ten years people were still being imprisoned as suspects. It is thought that as many as 1.5m were imprisoned at one stage or another.[22]

As a result of the purge, one of Sukarno's three pillars of support, the Indonesian Communist Party, had been effectively eliminated by the other two, the military and political Islam, although of the two, the military were in the position of unchallenged power. The killings and the failure of his tenuous "revolution" distressed Sukarno and he tried unsuccessfully to maintain his influence appealing in a January 1966 broadcast for the country to follow him. Subandrio sought to create a Sukarnoist column (Barisan Sukarno), which was undermined by Suharto's pledge of loyalty to Sukarno and the concurrent instruction for all those loyal to Sukarno to announce their support for the army.[23] In February, Sukarno reshuffled his cabinet, sacking Nasution as Defence Minister and abolishing his position of armed forces chief of staff, but Nasution refused to step down.

On March 11, 1966, Suharto and his supporters in the military forced Sukarno to issue a Presidential Order called Supersemar (Surat Perintah Sebelas Maret -- The March 11 Order), in which Sukarno gave orders to Suharto only to restore peace and order, not to transfer of power to him. After obtaining the Presidential Order, Suharto had the PKI declared illegal and the party was abolished. He also arrested many high ranking officials that were loyal to Sukarno on the charge of being PKI members and/or sympathizers, further reducing Sukarno's political power and influence.

Sukarno was stripped of his presidential title by Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Sementara (Provisional Peoples Representative Assembly) on March 12, 1967, led by his former ally, Nasution, and remained under house arrest until his death at age 69 in Jakarta in 1970. He was buried in Blitar, East Java, Indonesia. In recent decades, his grave has been a significant venue in the network of places that Javanese visit on ziarah and for some is of equal significance to those of the Wali Songo.[citation needed]

While the semi-official version of the events of 1965-1966 claims that the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) ordered the murders of the six generals, others blame Sukarno, and still others believe Suharto orchestrated the assassinations to remove potential rivals for the presidenc

Sukarno married Siti Utari circa 1920, and divorced her to marry Inggit Garnasih, who he divorced circa 1931 to marry Fatmawati.[25] Without divorcing, Sukarno also married Hartini, and circa 1959 Dewi Sukarno.[26] Other wives included Oetari, Kartini Manoppo, Ratna Sari, Haryati, Yurike Sanger, and Heldy Djafar.

Megawati Sukarnoputri, who served as the fifth president of Indonesia, is his daughter by his wife Fatmawati. Her younger brother Guruh Sukarnoputra (born 1953) has inherited Sukarno's artistic bent and is a choreographer and songwriter, who made a movie Untukmu, Indonesiaku (For You, My Indonesia) about Indonesian culture. He is also a member of the Indonesian People's Representative Council for Megawati's Indonesian Democratic Party – Struggle. His siblings Guntur Sukarnoputra, Rachmawati Sukarnoputri and Sukmawati Sukarnoputri have all been active in politics. Sukarno had a daughter named Kartika by Dewi Sukarno.[27] In 2006 Kartika Sukarno married Frits Seegers, the Netherlands-born chief executive officer of the Barclays Global Retail and Commercial Bank.[28] Other offspring include Taufan and Bayu by his wife Hartini, and a son named Toto Suryawan Soekarnoputra (born 1967, in Germany), by his wife Kartini Manoppo. Popular ladies' magazines such as Femina and Kartini regularly run features about newly discovered lookalike sons and daughters throughout the archipelago, who often disappear when pressed to take a DNA test by the official Sukarno children

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukarno

Soekarno. the first president of Indonesia

2010-01-04T21:12:00.000-08:00

r. Soekarno1 (ER, EYD: Sukarno) (lahir di Blitar, Jawa Timur, 6 Juni 1901 – meninggal di Jakarta, 21 Juni 1970 pada umur 69 tahun) adalah Presiden Indonesia pertama yang menjabat pada periode 1945 - 1966. Ia memainkan peranan penting untuk memerdekakan bangsa Indonesia dari penjajahan Belanda. Ia adalah penggali Pancasila. Ia adalah Proklamator Kemerdekaan Indonesia (bersama dengan Mohammad Hatta) yang terjadi pada tanggal 17 Agustus 1945.

Soekarno menandatangani Surat Perintah 11 Maret 1966 Supersemar yang kontroversial, yang isinya - berdasarkan versi yang dikeluarkan Markas Besar Angkatan darat - menugaskan Letnan Jenderal Soeharto untuk mengamankan dan menjaga keamanan negara dan institusi kepresidenan. Supersemar menjadi dasar Letnan Jenderal Soeharto untuk membubarkan Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI) dan mengganti anggota-anggotanya yang duduk di parlemen. Setelah pertanggung jawabannya ditolak Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Sementara (MPRS) pada sidang umum ke empat tahun 1967, Presiden Soekarno diberhentikan dari jabatannya sebagai presiden pada Sidang Istimewa MPRS di tahun yang sama dan mengangkat Soeharto sebagai pejabat Presiden Republik Indonesia.

Soekarno dilahirkan dengan nama Kusno Sosrodihardjo. Ayahnya bernama Raden Soekemi Sosrodihardjo, seorang guru di Surabaya, Jawa. Ibunya bernama Ida Ayu Nyoman Rai berasal dari Buleleng, Bali [1].

Ketika kecil Soekarno tinggal bersama kakeknya di Tulungagung, Jawa Timur. Pada usia 14 tahun, seorang kawan bapaknya yang bernama Oemar Said Tjokroaminoto mengajak Soekarno tinggal di Surabaya dan disekolahkan ke Hoogere Burger School (H.B.S.) di sana sambil mengaji di tempat Tjokroaminoto. Di Surabaya, Soekarno banyak bertemu dengan para pemimpin Sarekat Islam, organisasi yang dipimpin Tjokroaminoto saat itu. Soekarno kemudian bergabung dengan organisasi Jong Java (Pemuda Jawa).

Tamat H.B.S. tahun 1920, Soekarno melanjutkan ke Technische Hoge School (sekarang ITB) di Bandung, dan tamat pada tahun 1925. Saat di Bandung, Soekarno berinteraksi dengan Tjipto Mangunkusumo dan Dr. Douwes Dekker, yang saat itu merupakan pemimpin organisasi National Indische Partij.

Pada tahun 1926, Soekarno mendirikan Algemene Studie Club di Bandung. Organisasi ini menjadi cikal bakal Partai Nasional Indonesia yang didirikan pada tahun 1927. Aktivitas Soekarno di PNI menyebabkannya ditangkap Belanda pada bulan Desember 1929, dan memunculkan pledoinya yang fenomenal: Indonesia Menggugat, hingga dibebaskan kembali pada tanggal 31 Desember 1931.

Pada bulan Juli 1932, Soekarno bergabung dengan Partai Indonesia (Partindo), yang merupakan pecahan dari PNI. Soekarno kembali ditangkap pada bulan Agustus 1933, dan diasingkan ke Flores. Di sini, Soekarno hampir dilupakan oleh tokoh-tokoh nasional. Namun semangatnya tetap membara seperti tersirat dalam setiap suratnya kepada seorang Guru Persatuan Islam bernama Ahmad Hassan.

Pada tahun 1938 hingga tahun 1942 Soekarno diasingkan ke Provinsi Bengkulu.

Soekarno baru kembali bebas pada masa penjajahan Jepang pada tahun 1942.

Pada awal masa penjajahan Jepang (1942-1945), pemerintah Jepang sempat tidak memperhatikan tokoh-tokoh pergerakan Indonesia terutama untuk "mengamankan" keberadaannya di Indonesia. Ini terlihat pada Gerakan 3A dengan tokohnya Shimizu dan Mr. Syamsuddin yang kurang begitu populer.

Namun akhirnya, pemerintahan pendudukan Jepang memperhatikan dan sekaligus memanfaatkan tokoh tokoh Indonesia seperti Soekarno, Mohammad Hatta dan lain-lain dalam setiap organisasi-organisasi dan lembaga lembaga untuk menarik hati penduduk Indonesia. Disebutkan dalam berbagai organisasi seperti Jawa Hokokai, Pusat Tenaga Rakyat (Putera), BPUPKI dan PPKI, tokoh tokoh seperti Soekarno, Hatta, Ki Hajar Dewantara, K.H Mas Mansyur dan lain lainnya disebut-sebut dan terlihat begitu aktif. Dan akhirnya tokoh-tokoh nasional bekerjasama dengan pemerintah pendudukan Jepang untuk mencapai kemerdekaan Indonesia, meski ada pula yang melakukan gerakan bawah tanah seperti Sutan Syahrir dan Amir Sjarifuddin karena menganggap Jepang adalah fasis yang berbahaya.
Soekarno diantara Pemimpin Dunia

Presiden Soekarno sendiri, saat pidato pembukaan menjelang pembacaan teks proklamasi kemerdekaan, mengatakan bahwa meski sebenarnya kita bekerjasama dengan Jepang sebenarnya kita percaya dan yakin serta mengandalkan kekuatan sendiri.

Ia aktif dalam usaha persiapan kemerdekaan Indonesia, diantaranya adalah merumuskan Pancasila, UUD 1945 dan dasar dasar pemerintahan Indonesia termasuk merumuskan naskah proklamasi Kemerdekaan. Ia sempat dibujuk untuk menyingkir ke Rengasdengklok Peristiwa Rengasdengklok.

Pada tahun 1943, Perdana Menteri Jepang Hideki Tojo mengundang tokoh Indonesia yakni Soekarno, Mohammad Hatta dan Ki Bagoes Hadikoesoemo ke Jepang dan diterima langsung oleh Kaisar Hirohito. Bahkan kaisar memberikan Bintang kekaisaran (Ratna Suci) kepada tiga tokoh Indonesia tersebut. Penganugerahan Bintang itu membuat pemerintahan pendudukan Jepang terkejut, karena hal itu berarti bahwa ketiga tokoh Indonesia itu dianggap keluarga Kaisar Jepang sendiri. Pada bulan Agustus 1945, ia diundang oleh Marsekal Terauchi, pimpinan Angkatan Darat wilayah Asia Tenggara di Dalat Vietnam yang kemudian menyatakan bahwa proklamasi kemerdekaan Indonesia adalah urusan rakyat Indonesia sendiri.

Namun keterlibatannya dalam badan-badan organisasi bentukan Jepang membuat Soekarno dituduh oleh Belanda bekerja sama dengan Jepang,antara lain dalam kasus romusha.

Soekarno bersama tokoh-tokoh nasional mulai mempersiapkan diri menjelang Proklamasi kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia. Setelah sidang Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia BPUPKI,Panitia Kecil yang terdiri dari delapan orang (resmi), Panitia Kecil yang terdiri dari sembilan orang/Panitia Sembilan (yang menghasilkan Piagam Jakarta) dan Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia PPKI, Soekarno-Hatta mendirikan Negara Indonesia berdasarkan Pancasila dan UUD 1945.

Setelah menemui Marsekal Terauchi di Dalat, Vietnam, terjadilah Peristiwa Rengasdengklok pada tanggal 16 Agustus 1945; Soekarno dan Mohammad Hatta dibujuk oleh para pemuda untuk menyingkir ke asrama pasukan Pembela Tanah Air Peta Rengasdengklok. Tokoh pemuda yang membujuk antara lain Soekarni, Wikana, Singgih serta Chairul Saleh. Para pemuda menuntut agar Soekarno dan Hatta segera memproklamasikan kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia, karena di Indonesia terjadi kevakuman kekuasaan. Ini disebabkan karena Jepang sudah menyerah dan pasukan Sekutu belum tiba. Namun Soekarno, Hatta dan para tokoh menolak dengan alasan menunggu kejelasan mengenai penyerahan Jepang. Alasan lain yang berkembang adalah Soekarno menetapkan moment tepat untuk kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia yakni dipilihnya tanggal 17 Agustus 1945 saat itu bertepatan dengan bulan Ramadhan, bulan suci kaum muslim yang diyakini merupakan bulan turunnya wahyu pertama kaum muslimin kepada Nabi Muhammad SAW yakni Al Qur-an. Pada tanggal 18 Agustus 1945, Soekarno dan Mohammad Hatta diangkat oleh PPKI menjadi Presiden dan Wakil Presiden Republik Indonesia. Pada tanggal 29 Agustus 1945 pengangkatan menjadi presiden dan wakil presiden dikukuhkan oleh KNIP.Pada tanggal 19 September 1945 kewibawaan Soekarno dapat menyelesaikan tanpa pertumpahan darah peristiwa Lapangan Ikada dimana 200.000 rakyat Jakarta akan bentrok dengan pasukan Jepang yang masih bersenjata lengkap.

Pada saat kedatangan Sekutu (AFNEI) yang dipimpin oleh Letjen. Sir Phillip Christison, Christison akhirnya mengakui kedaulatan Indonesia secara de facto setelah mengadakan pertemuan dengan Presiden Soekarno. Presiden Soekarno juga berusaha menyelesaikan krisis di Surabaya. Namun akibat provokasi yang dilancarkan pasukan NICA (Belanda) yang membonceng Sekutu. (dibawah Inggris) meledaklah Peristiwa 10 November 1945 di Surabaya dan gugurnya Brigadir Jendral A.W.S Mallaby.

Karena banyak provokasi di Jakarta pada waktu itu, Presiden Soekarno akhirnya memindahkan Ibukota Republik Indonesia dari Jakarta ke Yogyakarta. Diikuti wakil presiden dan pejabat tinggi negara lainnya.

Kedudukan Presiden Soekarno menurut UUD 1945 adalah kedudukan Presiden selaku kepala pemerintahan dan kepala negara (presidensiil/single executive). Selama revolusi kemerdekaan,sistem pemerintahan berubah menjadi semi-presidensiil/double executive. Presiden Soekarno sebagai Kepala Negara dan Sutan Syahrir sebagai Perdana Menteri/Kepala Pemerintahan. Hal itu terjadi karena adanya maklumat wakil presiden No X, dan maklumat pemerintah bulan November 1945 tentang partai politik. Hal ini ditempuh agar Republik Indonesia dianggap negara yang lebih demokratis.

Meski sistem pemerintahan berubah, pada saat revolusi kemerdekaan, kedudukan Presiden Soekarno tetap paling penting, terutama dalam menghadapi Peristiwa Madiun 1948 serta saat Agresi Militer Belanda II yang menyebabkan Presiden Soekarno, Wakil Presiden Mohammad Hatta dan sejumlah pejabat tinggi negara ditahan Belanda. Meskipun sudah ada Pemerintahan Darurat Republik Indonesia (PDRI) dengan ketua Sjafruddin Prawiranegara, tetapi pada kenyataannya dunia internasional dan situasi dalam negeri tetap mengakui bahwa Soekarno-Hatta adalah pemimpin Indonesia yang sesungguhnya, hanya kebijakannya yang dapat menyelesaikan sengketa Indonesia-Belanda.

Setelah Pengakuan Kedaulatan (Pemerintah Belanda menyebutkan sebagai Penyerahan Kedaulatan), Presiden Soekarno diangkat sebagai Presiden Republik Indonesia Serikat (RIS) dan Mohammad Hatta diangkat sebagai perdana menteri RIS. Jabatan Presiden Republik Indonesia diserahkan kepada Mr Assaat, yang kemudian dikenal sebagai RI Jawa-Yogya. Namun karena tuntutan dari seluruh rakyat Indonesia yang ingin kembali ke negara kesatuan, maka pada tanggal 17 Agustus 1950, RIS kembali berubah menjadi Republik Indonesia dan Presiden Soekarno menjadi Presiden RI. Mandat Mr Assaat sebagai pemangku jabatan Presiden RI diserahkan kembali kepada Ir. Soekarno. Resminya kedudukan Presiden Soekarno adalah presiden konstitusional, tetapi pada kenyataannya kebijakan pemerintah dilakukan setelah berkonsultasi dengannya.

Mitos Dwitunggal Soekarno-Hatta cukup populer dan lebih kuat dikalangan rakyat dibandingkan terhadap kepala pemerintahan yakni perdana menteri. Jatuh bangunnya kabinet yang terkenal sebagai "kabinet seumur jagung" membuat Presiden Soekarno kurang mempercayai sistem multipartai, bahkan menyebutnya sebagai "penyakit kepartaian". Tak jarang, ia juga ikut turun tangan menengahi konflik-konflik di tubuh militer yang juga berimbas pada jatuh bangunnya kabinet. Seperti peristiwa 17 Oktober 1952 dan Peristiwa di kalangan Angkatan Udara.
Soekarno dan John F Kennedy

Presiden Soekarno juga banyak memberikan gagasan-gagasan di dunia Internasional. Keprihatinannya terhadap nasib bangsa Asia-Afrika, masih belum merdeka, belum mempunyai hak untuk menentukan nasibnya sendiri, menyebabkan presiden Soekarno, pada tahun 1955, mengambil inisiatif untuk mengadakan Konferensi Asia-Afrika di Bandung yang menghasilkan Dasa Sila. Bandung dikenal sebagai Ibu Kota Asia-Afrika. Ketimpangan dan konflik akibat "bom waktu" yang ditinggalkan negara-negara barat yang dicap masih mementingkan imperialisme dan kolonialisme, ketimpangan dan kekhawatiran akan munculnya perang nuklir yang merubah peradaban, ketidakadilan badan-badan dunia internasional dalam pemecahan konflik juga menjadi perhatiannya. Bersama Presiden Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia), Gamal Abdel Nasser (Mesir), Mohammad Ali Jinnah (Pakistan), U Nu, (Birma) dan Jawaharlal Nehru (India) ia mengadakan Konferensi Asia Afrika yang membuahkan Gerakan Non Blok. Berkat jasanya itu, banyak negara-negara Asia Afrika yang memperoleh kemerdekaannya. Namun sayangnya, masih banyak pula yang mengalami konflik berkepanjangan sampai saat ini karena ketidakadilan dalam pemecahan masalah, yang masih dikuasai negara-negara kuat atau adikuasa. Berkat jasa ini pula, banyak penduduk dari kawasan Asia Afrika yang tidak lupa akan Soekarno bila ingat atau mengenal akan Indonesia.
Soekarno dan Jawaharlal Nehru

Guna menjalankan politik luar negeri yang bebas-aktif dalam dunia internasional, Presiden Soekarno mengunjungi berbagai negara dan bertemu dengan pemimpin-pemimpin negara. Di antaranya adalah Nikita Khruschev (Uni Soviet), John Fitzgerald Kennedy (Amerika Serikat), Fidel Castro (Kuba), Mao Tse Tung (RRC).

Masa-masa kejatuhan Soekarno dimulai sejak ia "bercerai" dengan Wakil Presiden Moh. Hatta, pada tahun 1956, akibat pengunduran diri Hatta dari kancah perpolitikan Indonesia. Ditambah dengan sejumlah pemberontakan separatis yang terjadi di seluruh pelosok Indonesia, dan puncaknya, pemberontakan G 30 S, membuat Soekarno di dalam masa jabatannya tidak dapat "memenuhi" cita-cita bangsa Indonesia yang makmur dan sejahtera.

Soekarno sendiri wafat pada tanggal 21 Juni 1970 di Wisma Yaso, Jakarta, setelah mengalami pengucilan oleh penggantinya Soeharto. Jenazahnya dikebumikan di Kota Blitar, Jawa Timur, dan kini menjadi ikon kota tersebut, karena setiap tahunnya dikunjungi ratusan ribu hingga jutaan wisatawan dari seluruh penjuru dunia. Terutama pada saat penyelenggaraan Haul Bung Karno.

Pada tanggal 19 Juni 2008, Pemerintah Kuba menerbitkan perangko yang bergambar Soekarno dan presiden Kuba Fidel Castro.[2] Penerbitan itu bersamaan dengan ulang tahun ke-80 Fidel Castro dan peringatan "kunjungan Presiden Indonesia, Soekarno, ke Kuba".

Nama lengkap Soekarno ketika lahir adalah Kusno Sosrodihardjo.[3] Ketika masih kecil, karena sering sakit-sakitan, menurut kebiasaan orang Jawa[rujukan?]; oleh orang tuanya namanya diganti menjadi Soekarno[rujukan?]. Di kemudian hari ketika menjadi Presiden R.I., ejaan nama Soekarno diganti olehnya sendiri menjadi Sukarno karena menurutnya nama tersebut menggunakan ejaan penjajah (Belanda)[rujukan?]. Ia tetap menggunakan nama Soekarno dalam tanda tangannya karena tanda tangan tersebut adalah tanda tangan yang tercantum dalam Teks Proklamasi Kemerdekaan Indonesia yang tidak boleh diubah[rujukan?].

Sebutan akrab untuk Ir. Soekarno adalah Bung Karno.

Di beberapa negara Barat, nama Soekarno kadang-kadang ditulis Achmed Soekarno. Hal ini terjadi karena ketika Soekarno pertama kali berkunjung ke Amerika Serikat, sejumlah wartawan bertanya-tanya, "Siapa nama kecil Soekarno?" karena mereka tidak mengerti kebiasaan sebagian masyarakat di Indonesia yang hanya menggunakan satu nama saja atau tidak memiliki nama keluarga. Entah bagaimana, seseorang lalu menambahkan nama Achmed di depan nama Soekarno. Hal ini pun terjadi di beberapa Wikipedia, seperti wikipedia bahasa Ceko, bahasa Wales, bahasa Denmark, bahasa Jerman, dan bahasa Spanyol.

Sukarno menyebutkan bahwa nama Achmed di dapatnya ketika menunaikan ibadah haji.[4]

Dan dalam beberapa versi lain, disebutkan pemberian nama Achmed di depan nama Sukarno, dilakukan oleh para diplomat muslim asal Indonesia yang sedang melakukan misi luar negeri dalam upaya untuk mendapatkan pengakuan kedaulatan negara Indonesia oleh negara-negara Arab.

Al-farabi

2009-10-16T09:37:00.001-07:00

Abū Nasir Muhammad bin al-Farakh al-Fārābi (870-950, Bahasa Persia: محمد فارابی ) atau Abū Nasir al-Fārābi (dalam beberapa sumber ia dikenal sebagai Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Tarkhan bin Uzalagh al-Farabi), juga dikenal di dunia barat sebagai Alpharabius, Al-Farabi, Farabi, dan Abunasir adalah seorang filsuf Islam yang menjadi salah satu ilmuwan dan filsuf terbaik di zamannya. Ia berasal dari Farab, Kazakhstan. Sampai umur 50, ia tetap tinggal di Kazakhstan. Tetapi kemudian ia pergi ke Baghdad untuk menuntut ilmu di sana selama 20 tahun. Lalu ia pergi ke Alepo (Halib), Suriah untuk mengabdi kepada sang raja di sana.

Al-Farabi adalah seorang komentator filsafat Yunani yang sangat ulung di dunia Islam. Meskipun kemungkinan besar ia tidak bisa berbahasa Yunani, ia mengenal para filsuf Yunani; Plato, Aristoteles dan Plotinus dengan baik. Kontribusinya terletak di berbagai bidang seperti matematika, filosofi, pengobatan, bahkan musik. Al-Farabi telah menulis berbagai buku tentang sosiologi dan sebuah buku penting dalam bidang musik, Kitab al-Musiqa. Ia dapat memainkan dan telah menciptakan bebagai alat musik.

Al-Farabi muda belajar ilmu-ilmu islam dan musik di Bukhara. Setelah mendapat pendidikan awal, Al_farabi belajar logika kepada orang Kristen Nestorian yang berbahasa Suryani, yaitu Yuhanna ibn Hailan. Pada masa kekhalifahan Al-Muta'did (892-902M), Al-farabi dan Yhanna ibn Hailan pergi ke Baghdad dan Al-farabi unggul dalam ilmu logika. Al-Farabi selanjutnya banyak memberi sumbangsihnya dalam penempaan filsafat baru dalam bahasa Arab. Pada kekahlifahan Al-Muktafi (902-908M) dan awal kekhalifahan Al-Muqtadir (908-932M) Al-farabi dan Ibn Hailan meninggalkan Baghdad menuju Harran. Dari Baghdad Al-Farabi pergi ke Konstantinopel dan tinggal di sana selama dealapan tahun serta mempelajari seluruh silabus filsafat.

Al-Farabi dikenal sebagai "guru kedua" setelah Aristoteles. Dia adalah filosof islam pertama yang berupaya menghadapkan, mempertalikan dan sejauh mungkin menyelaraskan filsafat politik Yunani klasik dengan islam serta berupaya membuatnya bisa dimengerti di dalam konteks agama-agama wahyu. Karyanya yang paling terkenal adalah Al-Madinah Al-Fadhilah (Kota atau Negara Utama)yang membahas tetang pencapaian kebahagian melalui kehidupan politik dan hubungan antara rezim yang paling baik menurut pemahaman Plato dengan hukum Ilahiah islam. Filsafat politik Al-Farabi, khususnya gagasannya mengenai penguasa kota utama mencerminkan rasionalisasi ajaran Imamah dalam Syi'ah.

dikutip dari : http://id.wikipedia.org

Al_Mawardi

2009-10-16T09:10:00.000-07:00

Kekhalifahan Abbasiyah yg gemilang telah memberikan suasana paling cocok bagi kemajuan ilmu pengetahuan dan secara tepat dikenal sebagai zaman keemasan peradaban Islam. Pada masa pemerintahan inilah Khalifah Ma’mun ar-Razid yg termasyur itu mendirikan Darul hukama yg manfaatnya sebagai laboratorium penerjemahan dan kerja penelitian membuka jalan bagi perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan. Perkembangan intelektual selama era ini telah mencapai tingkatan yg tidak ada tolok bandingannya dalam sejarah Islam. Khalifah-Khalifah dan Amir-amir saling menyaingi dalam melacak karya-karya tulis dan melindungi ilmu pengetahuan. Salah seorang bintang intelektual yg besar pada zaman ini adl Al-Mawardi yg menjdi terkenal sebagai pemikir politik Islam yg pertama dan termasuk pada barisan pemikir-pemikir politik yg terbesar dari abad pertengahan. Dari kedudukan sebagai Qadhi meningkat menjadi Duta Keliling Khalifah dan telah membereskan banyak kekacauan politik yg rumit bagi negaranya. “Al-Khatib of Baghdad” demikian tulis seorang orientalis “Mengenai otoritas Abu Ali Hasan Ibn Da’ud menceritakan bahwa penduduk Basrah selalu membanggakan tiga orang ilmuwan negara mereka dan karya-karyanya yaitu
#

Khalid ibn Ahmad dgn karyanya Kitab Al-Amin

Sibawaih dgn karyanya Kitab An-Nahw dan

Al-Jahiz dgn karyanya Al-Bayan wat-Tabiyan.

Kepada tiga nama ini masih bisa ditambahkan nama keempat Al-Mawardi seorang penasehat hukum yg terpelajar dan ahli ekonomi politik dari Basrah dgn bukunya Al-Ahkam us-Sultaniyah. Karya ini merupakan master-piece dalam literature politik keagamaan Islam.”

Ali ibn Muhammad ibn Habib Abul Hasan al-Mawardi lahir di Basrah pada 364 H/1058 M dalam satu keluarga Arab yg membuat dan memeperdagangkan air mawar dan karena itu mendapat nama julukan “Al Mawardi.” Dia menerima pendidikannya yg pertama di Basrah belajar ilmu hukum dari Abul Qasim Abdul Wahid as-Saimari seorang ahli hukum madzhab Syafi’i yg terkenal. Kemudian pindah ke Baghdad utk melanjutkan pelajaran hukum tata bahasa dan kesusastraan dari Abdullah al-Bafi dan Syaikh Abdul Hamid al-Isfraini. Dalam waktu singkat ia telah menguasai dgn baik pelajaran-pelajaran Islam termasuk hadits dan fiqh seperti juga politik etika dan sastra. Dari menjabat qadhi di berbagai tempat kemudian diangkat sebagai qadhi al-Quzat di Ustuwa sebuah distrik di Nishabur. Pada 429 H ia dinaikkan kejabatan kehakiman yg paling tinggi Aqb al-Quzat di Baghdad janbatan yg dipegangnya dgn hormat sampai pada saat wafatnya. Dia ahli politik praktis yg ulung dan penulis kreatif mengenai berbagai persoalan sepeti agama etika sastra dan politik. Khalifah Abbasiyah al-Qadir Bailah memberinya kehormatan yg tinggi dan Qa’imam bin Amrillah 391 - 460 H Khalifah Abbasiyah ke-26 di Baghdad mengangkatnya menjadi duta keliling dan mengutusnya dalam berbagai misi diplomatic ke negara-negara tetangga maupun ke negara satelit. Kenegarawannya yg arif bijaksana utk sebagian besar bertanggung jawab dalam memelihara wibawa kekhalifahan di Baghdad yg merosot di tengah-tengah para raja dari warga Seljuk dan Buwaihid yg hampir sepenuhnya berdiri sendiri dan terlalu berkuasa. Al Mawardi dilimpahi berbagai hadiah berharga oleh Seljuk Buwaihid dan amir-amir yg lainnya yg diberinya nasehat-nasehat bijaksana yg sesuai dgn martabat kekhalifahan Baghdad. Menurut Jalal-ud-Dawlah Al-Mawardi melampaui orang-orang lain sederajatnya dalam kekayaan. Ada orang yg menuduh dia mengakui menganut keyakinan Mu’tazili tetapi penulis-penulis kemudian menyangkal hal itu. Dia wafat pada 1058 M sesudah menjalani karier yg cemerlang. Sebagai eksponen Madzhab syafi’I Al-Mawardi adl seorang ahli hadits terkemuka. Sayang sekali tak ada karyanya mengenai persoalan ini yg masih tersimpan. Tak diragukan bahwa sejumlah hadits dari dia telah dikutip dalam Ahkam us-Sultaniya A’lam Nubuwat dan Adab ud Dunya wad-Din. Pegangannya pada hadits bisa kaku ternyata dari karyanya A’lam un- Nubuwat. Keterangannya tentang perbedaan antara mukjizat dan sihir dalam pengertian ucapan-ucapan nabi menurut Tsah Kopruizadah adl yg “terbaik diriwayatkan sampai masa itu.” Sebagai seorang penasehat politik Al-Mawardi menempati kedudukan yg penting diantara sarjana-sarjana Muslim. Dia telah mengkhususkan diri dalam soal ini dan diakui secara universal sebagai salah seorang ahli hukum terbesar pada zamannya. Dia mengemukakan fiqh madzhab Syafi’i dalam karya besar yg unggul Al-Hawi yg dipakai sebagai buku rujukan tentang hukum madzhab Syafi’i oleh ahli-ahli hukum kemudian hari termasuk al-Isnavi yg sangat memuji buku ini .buku ini terdiri dari 8.000halamandipadatkan oleh al-mawardi dalam satu ringkasan 40 halaman berjudul Al-Iqra. Al-mawardi mempunyai reputasi tinggi di kalangan orang-orang lama dalam barisan juru ulas Al-Quran .Ulasanya yg berjudul Nukat-wa”luyun mendapat tempat tersendiri diantara ulasan-ulasan klasik dari Al Qusyairi Al-Razi Al-Isfahani dan Al-Kirmani. Tuduhan bahwa ulasan-ulasannya yg tertentu mengandung kuman-kuman pandangan Mu’tazilah tidaklah wajar dan orang-orang terkemuka seperti Ibn Taimiyah telah memasukkan karya Al-Mawardi ke dalam buku-buku yg bagus mengenai persoalannya. Ulasannya atas Al-Qur’an popular sekali dan buku ini telah dipesingkat oleh seorang penulis. Seorang sarjana Muslim Sepanyol bernama Abul Hasan Ali telah daang jauh dari Saragosa di Sepanyol utk membaca buku tersebut dari pengarangnya sendiri. Al-Mawardi juga menulis sebuah buku tentang perumpamaan dalam Al-Qur’an yg menurut pendapat As-Suyuti merupakan buku pertma dalam soal ini. Menekankan pentingnya buku iniAl-Mawardi menulis “salah satu dari ilmu Qur’an yg pokok adl ilmu ibarat atau umpama. Orang telah mengabaikan hal ini krn mereka membatasi perhatiannya hanya kepada perumpamaan dan hilang pandangannya kepada umpama-umpamanya yg disebutkan dalam kiasan itu. Suatu perumpamaan tanpa suatu persamaan ibarat kuda tanpa kekang atau unta tanpa penuntun.” Al-Mawardi sekalipun bukan mahasiswa biasa dalam ilmu politik adl ahli ekonomi politik kelas tinggi dan tulisan-tulisannya yg spekulatif politis dianggap sangat bernilai. Karyanya yg monumental Al-Ahkam us-Sultaniyah mengambil tempat yg penting diantara risalah-risalah politik yg ditulis selama abad pertengahan. Dia telah menulis empat buku tentang ilmu politik yaitu 1. Al-Ahkam us-Sultaniyah 2. Adab al-Wasir 3. Siyasat ul-Malik 4. Tahsil unNasr wat-Ta’jit uz-Zafar .Dari empat buku ini dua yg pertma telah diterbitkan. Al-Ahkam us-Sultaniyah yg telah diterjemahkan ke dalam beberapa bahasa termasuk Perancis dan Urdu merupakan karya-karya tiada ternilai mengenai hukum masyarakat Islam. Dalam isi buku ini dia telah mengikuti karya Asy-Syafi’i kitab Al-Umm Adab al-Wasir yg menguraiakan fungsi perdana menteri danmemberikan pandangan-pandangan yg sehat mengenai administrasi umum. Suatu bacaan yg luas menguraiakan kewajiban-kewajiban dan hak-hak istimewa perdana menteri banyak dihasilkan di negeri-negeri Islam tetapi karya Al-Mawardi Adab al-Wasir adl yg paling luas dan penting mengenai pesoalannya yg meliputi hampir semua tahap tentang hal yg berseluk-beluk ini. Tulisan-tulisan Al-Mawardi yg bersifat politik maupun yg religius mempunyai pengaruh besar atas penulis-penulis yg kemudian tentang persoalan ini terutama di negeri-negeri Islam. Pengaruhnya bisa terrlihat pada karya Nizamul Mulk Tusi Siyasat Nama dan Prolegomena karya Ibn Khaldun. Ibn Khaldun yg diakui peletak dasar sosiologi dan pengarang tekemuka mengenai ekonomi politik tak ragu lagi telah melebihi Al-Mawardi dalam banyakhal. Menyebutkan satu-persatu kemestian seorang penguasa Ibn Khaldun berkata “Penguasa itu ada utk kebaikan rakyat??. Kemestian adanya seorang penguasa timbul dari fakta bahwa manusia harus hidup bersama-sama; dankecuali ada orang yg memelihara ketertiban maka masyarakat akan hancur berantakan.” Dia mengamati “Selamanya ada kecenderungan tetap dalam suatu monarki Timur kepada absolutisme kepad kekuasaan tiada terbatas tiada diraukan begitu pulalah kecenderungan gubernur-gubernur orang Timur kepada kebebasan bertambah-tambah besar kepada kekuasaan pusat.” Sebelumnya Al-Mawardi telah menunjukkan kekuasaan tak terbatas dari gubernur-gubernur selama kemerosotan kekhalifahan Abbasiyah ketika kedudukan gubernuran itu telah diperoleh melalui perebutan kuasa dan penguasa usat hanya memiliki kontrol yg lemah terhadap mereka. Demikianlah Al-Mawardi menonjol sebagai pemikir besar politik yg petama dalam Islam tulisan-tulisan maupun pengalaman-pengalaman praktisnya dibidang politik telah berumur panjang dalam membentuk pandangn politik penulis-penulis yg lahir kemudian.

Sumber Seratus Muslim Terkemuka Jamil Ahmad Al-Islam Pusat Informasi dan Komunikasi Islam Indonesia

Ibnu Rusyd

2009-10-16T09:03:00.000-07:00

Diantara para filosof Islam, Ibnu Rusyd adalah salah seorang yang paling dikenal dunia Barat dan Timur. Nama lengkapnya Abu al-Walid Muhammad ibnu Ahmad Ibnu Muhammad ibnu Ahmad ibnu Ahmad ibnu rusyd, lahir di Cordova, Andalus pada tahun 520 H/ 1126 M, sekitar 15 tahun setelah wafatnya abu Hamid al-Ghazali. Ia ditulis sebagai satu-satunya filsuf Islam yang tumbuh dan berkembang dalam keluarga yang semuanya menjadi fuqaha’ dan hakim. Ayahnya dan kakeknya menjadi hakim-hakim agung di Andalusia. Ibnu Rusyd sendiri menjabat hakim di Sevilla dan Cordova pada saat terjadi hubungan politik yang penting antara Andalusia dengan Marakasy, pada masa Khalifah al-Manshur.[2] Hal itu mencerminkan kecerdasan otak dan ghirah kepada ilmu pengetahuan dalam keluarga ini sudah tumbuh sejak lama yang kemudian semakin sempurna pada diri ibnu Rusyd. Karena itu, dengan modal dan kondisi ini ia dapat mewarisi sepenunya intelektualitas keluarganya dan menguasai berbagai disiplin ilmu yang ada pada masanya.

Tidak hanya seorang ilmuan terpandang, ia juga ikut ke medan perang melawan Alphonse, raja Argon. Khalifah begitu menghormati Ibnu Rusyd melebihi penghormatannya pada para pejabat daulah al-Muwahhidun dan ulama-ulama yang ada masa itu. Walau pun demikian Ibnu Rusyd tetap menjadi orang yang rendah hati, ia menampilkan diri secara arif selayaknya seorang guru dalam memberi petunjuk dan pengajaran pada umat. Hubungan dekat dengan Khalifah segera berakhir, setelah Khalifah menyingkirkannya dari bahagian kekuasaan di Cordova dan buku-buku karyanya pernah diperintahkan Khalifah untuk dimusnahkan kecuali yang berkaitan dengan ilmu-ilmu murni saja. Ibnu Rusyd mengalami hidup pengasingan di Yasyanah.[3] Tindakan Khalifah ini menurut Nurcholish Madjid, hanya berdasarkan perhitungan politis, dimana suasana tidak kondusif dimanfaatkan oleh para ulama konservatif dengan kebencian dan kecemburuan yang terpendam terhadap kedudukan Ibnu Rusyd yang tinggi.[4]

Pengalaman pahit dan tragis yang dialami Ibnu Rusyd adalah seperti pengalaman hidup yang dialami para pemikir kreatif dan inovatif terdahulu. Namun kecintaannya kepada ilmu pengetahuan, membaca, menulis dan bermuzakarah tidak pernah surut. Kecintaan pada ilmu pengetahuan membentuk kepribadiannya sebagai seorang inklusif, toleran dan suka memberi maaf. Sifat kepribadian ini menurut al-Aqqad menyebabkan ia (saat menjadi hakim) selalu sulit dalam menjatuhkan eksekusi, dan jika eksekusi harus dilakukan ia serahkan kepada para wakilnya.

Di dunia Barat ia disebut dengan Averrois, menurut Sirajuddin Zar, sebutan ini sebenarnya lebih pantas untuk kakeknya. Karena sebutan ini adalah akibat terjadinya metamorfose Yahudi-Spanyol-Latin. Kata Arab Ibnu oleh orang Yahudi diucapkan seperti kata Ibrani Aben, sedangkan dalam standar Latin Rusyd menjadi Rochd. Dengan demikian, nama Ibnu Rusyd menjadi Aben Rochd, maka melalui asimilasi huruf-huruf konsonan dan penambahan sisipan sehingga akhirnya menjadi Averrois.[5] Dari Averrois ini muncul sebuah kelompok pengikut Ibnu Rusyd dalam bidang filsafat yang menamakan diri Averroisme. Dalam bidang ini, Ibnu Rusyd memang membuktikan diri sangat ahli dan terhormat, penjelasan-penjelasannya tentang filsafat dan komentarnya terhadap filsafat Aristoteles dinilai yang paling tepat dan tidak ada tandingannya. Sebab itu ada yang menamakannya sebagai guru kedua (bukan al-Farabi), setelah guru pertama Sang Filsuf atau Aristoteles.

Itu tidak berarti Ibnu Rusyd tidak memiliki pemikiran filsafat sendiri, dalam penjelasan al-Ahwani, pandangan-pandangan pribadi Ibnu Rusyd yang mencerminkan pandangan dan pahamnya sendiri terdapat dalam rumusan kesimpulan setelah memberikan uraian dan komentas terhadap filsafat Aristoteles.[6] Ulasan dan Kesimpulan-kesimpulan tersebut terkadang lebih panjang dari terjemahannya terhadap pemikiran Aristoteles sendiri.

Hidup terkucil demikian tidaklah lama (1 tahun) dialami Ibnu Rusyd, karena Khalifah segera mencabut hukumannya dan posisinya direhabilitasi kembali. Tidak lama menikmati semua itu, Ibnu Rusyd wafat pada 1198 M/ 595 H di Marakesh dan usia 72 tahun menurut perhitungan Masehi dan 75 tahun menurut perhitungan Hijrah.

dikutip dari: http://3kh4.wordpress.com

Ibnu Sina

2009-10-16T08:42:00.000-07:00

Ibnu Sina (980-1037) dikenal juga sebagai Avicenna di Dunia Barat adalah seorang filsuf, ilmuwan, dan juga dokter kelahiran Persia (sekarang sudah menjadi bagian Uzbekistan). Ia juga seorang penulis yang produktif dimana sebagian besar karyanya adalah tentang filosofi dan pengobatan. Bagi banyak orang, beliau adalah "Bapak Pengobatan Modern" dan masih banyak lagi sebutan baginya yang kebanyakan bersangkutan dengan karya-karyanya di bidang kedokteran. Karyanya yang sangat terkenal adalah Qanun fi Thib yang merupakan rujukan di bidang kedokteran selama berabad-abad.

Ibnu Sina bernama lengkap Abū ‘Alī al-Husayn bin ‘Abdullāh bin Sīnā (Persia ابوعلى سينا Abu Ali Sina atau dalam tulisan arab : أبو علي الحسين بن عبد الله بن سينا). Ibnu Sina lahir pada 980 di Afsyahnah daerah dekat Bukhara, sekarang wilayah Uzbekistan (kemudian Persia), dan meninggal pada bulan Juni 1037 di Hamadan, Persia (Iran).

Dia adalah pengarang dari 450 buku pada beberapa pokok bahasan besar. Banyak diantaranya memusatkan pada filosofi dan kedokteran. Dia dianggap oleh banyak orang sebagai "bapak kedokteran modern." George Sarton menyebut Ibnu Sina "ilmuwan paling terkenal dari Islam dan salah satu yang paling terkenal pada semua bidang, tempat, dan waktu." pekerjaannya yang paling terkenal adalah The Book of Healing dan The Canon of Medicine, dikenal juga sebagai sebagai Qanun (judul lengkap: Al-Qanun fi At Tibb).

Kehidupannyan dikenal lewat sumber - sumber berkuasa. Suatu autobiografi membahas tiga puluh tahun pertama kehidupannya, dan sisanya didokumentasikan oleh muridnya al-Juzajani, yang juga sekretarisnya dan temannya.

Ibnu Sina lahir pada tahun 370 (H) / 980 (M) di rumah ibunya Afshana, sebuah kota kecil sekarang wilayah Uzbekistan (bagian dari Persia). Ayahnya, seorang sarjana terhormat Ismaili, berasal dari Balkh Khorasan, dan pada saat kelahiran putranya dia adalah gubernur suatu daerah di salah satu pemukiman Nuh ibn Mansur, sekarang wilayah Afganistan (dan juga Persia). Dia menginginkan putranya dididik dengan baik di Bukhara.

Meskipun secara tradisional dipengaruhi oleh cabang Islam Ismaili, pemikiran Ibnu Sina independen dengan memiliki kepintaran dan ingatan luar biasa, yang mengizinkannya menyusul para gurunya pada usia 14 tahun.

Ibn Sina dididik dibawah tanggung jawab seorang guru, dan kepandaiannya segera membuatnya menjadi kekaguman diantara para tetangganya; dia menampilkan suatu pengecualian sikap intellectual dan seorang anak yang luar biasa kepandaiannya / Child prodigy yang telah menghafal Al-Quran pada usia 5 tahun dan juga seorang ahli puisi Persia. Dari seorang pedagan sayur dia mempelajari aritmatika, dan dia memulai untuk belajar yang lain dari seorang sarjana yang memperoleh suatu mata pencaharian dari merawat orang sakit dan mengajar anak muda.

Meskipun bermasalah besar pada masalah - masalah metafisika dan pada beberapa tulisan Aristoteles. Sehingga, untuk satu setengah tahun berikutnya, dia juga mempelajari filosofi, dimana dia menghadapi banyak rintangan. pada beberapa penyelidikan yang membingungkan, dia akan meninggalkan buku - bukunya, mengambil air wudhu, lalu pergi ke masjid, dan terus sholat sampai hidayah menyelesaikan kesulitan - kesulitannya. Pada larut malam dia akan melanjutkan kegiatan belajarnya, menstimulasi perasaannya dengan kadangkala segelas susu kambing, dan meskipun dalam mimpinya masalah akan mengikutinya dan memberikan solusinya. Empat puluh kali, dikatakan, dia membaca Metaphysics dari Aristoteles, sampai kata - katanya tertulis dalam ingatannya; tetapi artinya tak dikenal, sampai suatu hari mereka menemukan pencerahan, dari uraian singkat oleh Farabi, yang dibelinya di suatu bookstall seharga tiga dirham. Yang sangat mengagumkan adalah kesenangannya pada penemuan, yang dibuat dengan bantuan yang dia harapkan hanya misteri, yang mempercepat untuk berterima kasih kepada Allah SWT, dan memberikan sedekah atas orang miskin.

Dia mempelajari kedokteran pada usia 16, dan tidak hanya belajar teori kedokteran, tetapi melalui pelayanan pada orang sakit, melalui perhitungannya sendiri, menemukan metode - metode baru dari perawatan. Anak muda ini memperoleh predikat sebagai seorang fisikawan pada usia 18 tahun dan menemukan bahwa "Kedokteran tidaklah ilmu yang sulit ataupun menjengkelkan, seperti matematika dan metafisika, sehingga saya cepat memperoleh kemajuan; saya menjadi dokter yang sangat baik dan mulai merawat para pasien, menggunakan obat - obat yang sesuai." Kemasyuran sang fisikawan muda menyebar dengan cepat, dan dia merawat banyak pasien tanpa meminta bayaran.

Pekerjaan pertamanya menjadi fisikawan untuk emir, yang diobatinya dari suatu penyakit yang berbahaya. Majikan Ibnu Sina memberinya hadiah atas hal tersebut dengan memberinya akses ke perpustakaan raja Samanids, pendukung pendidikan dan ilmu. Ketika perpustakaan dihancurkan oleh api tidak lama kemudian, musuh - musuh Ibnu Sina menuduh din oa yang membakarnya, dengan tujuan untuk menyembunyikan sumber pengetahuannya. Sementara itu, Ibnu Sina membantu ayahnya dalam pekerjaannya, tetapi tetap meluangkan waktu untuk menulis beberapa karya paling awalnya.

Ketika Ibnu Sina berusia 22 tahun, ayahnya meninggal.Samanid dynasty menuju keruntuhannya pada Desember 1004. Ibnu Sina menolak pemberian Mahmud of Ghazni, dan menuju kearah Barat ke Urgench di Uzbekistan modern, dimana vizier, dianggap sebagai teman seperguruan, memberinya gaji kecil bulanan. Tetapi gajinya kecil, sehingga Ibnu Sina mengembara dari satu tempat ke tempat lain melalui distrik Nishapur dan Merv ke perbatasan Khorasan, mencari suatu opening untuk bakat - bakatnya. Shams al-Ma'äli Qäbtis, sang dermawan pengatur Dailam, seorang penyair dan sarjana, yang mana Ibn Sina mengharapkan menemukan tempat berlindung, dimana sekitar tahun (1052) meninggal dibunuh oleh pasukannya yang memberontak. Ibnu Sina sendiri pada saat itu terkena penyakit yang sangat parah. Akhirnya, di Gorgan, dekat Laut Kaspi, Ibnu Sina bertamu dengan seorang teman, yang membeli sebuah ruman didekat rumahnya sendiri idmana Ibnu Sina belajar logika dan astronomi. Beberapa dari buku panduan Ibnu Sina ditulis untuk orang ini ; dan permulaan dari buku Canon of Medicine juga dikerjakan sewaktu dia tinggal di Hyrcania.

berikut adalah karya2 beliau diantaranya adalah:
1.Qanun fi Thib (Canon of Medicine)(Terjemahan bebas:Aturan Pengobatan)
2.Asy Syifa (terdiri dari 18 jilid berisi tentang berbagai macam ilmu pengetahuan)
3.An Najat

Ibnu Sina wafat pada tahun 1037 M di Hamadan, Iran, karena penyakit maag yang kronis. Ia wafat ketika sedang mengajar di sebuah sekolah.

dikutip dari : http://id.wikipedia.org

Abu Bakar Muhammad bin Zakaria Al-Razi

2009-10-16T08:20:00.000-07:00

Abu Bakar Muhammad bin Zakaria al-Razi (محمد زکریای رازی) atau dikenali sebagai Rhazes di dunia barat merupakan salah seorang pakar sains dan ahli falsafah Iran yang hidup antara tahun 865 AD - 925 AD. Beliau telah menyumbang dalam bidang perubatan, kimia dan falsafah.

Menurut al-Biruni al-Razi dilahirkan di Rayy, Iran pada tahun 865 AD (251 Hijrah), dan meninggal di Rayy 925 AD (313 H).

Abu Bakar Muhammad bin Zakaria al-Razi adalah seorang ahli perubatan, falsafah, dan sarjana Parsi yang memberikan sumbangan asas dan berkekalan dalam bidang perubatan, Alkhemi (Alchemy), dan falsafah, yang ditulis dalam lebih 184 buah buku dan rencana dalam pelbagai bidang sains. Dia fasih dalam pengetahuan perubatan Yunani dan menambah sebahagian besar kepadanya dari pemerhatiannya sendiri. Sebagai ahli alkhemi, Razi diakui sebagai menjumpai asid sulfirik, yang digunakan secar ameluas ("work horse") bagi kejuruteraan kimia dan kimia moden. Dia juga menjumpai ethanol dan hasil sulingannya, dan kegunaannya dalam perubatan. Dia tanpa dipersoalkan lagi merupakan salah seorang juru ilmuan dalam Dunia Islam, dan mempunyai pengaruh yang besar kepada sains dan perubatan Eropah.
al-Razi merawat pesakit. (pelukis tidak dikenali)

Razi adalah seorang yang berfikiran rational sepenuhnya, amat yakin dengan kuasa logik (power of reason); dia dianggap oleh rakan semasa dan penulis bioliografi sebagai bebas dan bebas dari sebarang prajudis he was widely regarded by his contemporaries and biographers as liberal and free from any kind of prejudice, amat cekal dan berani mengutarakan pendapatnya tanpa teragak-agak. Dia percaya kepada kemajuan manusia dan "Tuhan Maha Bijaksana".

Dia mengembara di kebanyakan tempat dan memberikan khidmatnya kepada beberapa putera dan pemerintah terutamanya di Baghdad di mana dia mendirikan makmalnya. Sebagai guru dalam Perubatan dia menarik minat ramai pelajar dalam pelbagai bidang, baik, jujur, dan tegas bagi berkhidmat kepada pesakitnya, tidak kira kaya ataupun miskin.

Institute Razi hari ini di Tehran, Iran dinamakan sempena namanya, dan 'Hari Razi' ('Hari Farmasi') disambut di Iran setiap 27 Ogos.

Dalam bahasa Parsi, Razi membawa erti "dari bandar Ray (juga dieja RAY, REY, atau RAI, Parsi silam RAGHA, Latin RHAGAE) dahulunya salah satu bandar besar di Dunia)", bandar silam di cerun selatan Dataran Elburz Range yang terdampar di selatan Laut Caspian, terletak berhampiran Tehran, Iran. Di bandar ini (seperti Ibnu Sina) dia membuat kebanyakan pencapaian hasil kerjanya.

Pada awal kehidupannya dia boleh menjadi sebagai seorang tukang emas (Baihaqi), pengurup wang (Cf. Ibn abi Usaibi'ah) tetapi lebih besar kemungkinannya sebagai pemain seruling yang menukar minatnya dalam muzik kepada alkhemi (cf. ibn Juljul, Sa'id, ibn Khallikan, Usaibi'ah, al-Safadi). Pada usia tiga puluh (menurut Safadi empat puluh) dia berhenti penyelidikannya dalam alkhemi kerana ujikajinya menyebabkan penyakit mata (Cf. al-Biruni), memaksanya mencari ahli perubatan dan ubat bagi menyembuhkannya. Al-Birflni, Baihaqi dan yang lain, menyatakan bahawa ini adalah sebab mengapa dia memulakan kajian perubatannya. Dia amat kuat belajar setiap hari dan malam. Gurunya adalah 'Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari (Cf. al-Qifti, Usaibi'ah), seorang pakar perubatan dan ahli falsafah yang lahir di Merv sekitar 192/808 (meninggal. sekitar. 240/855).

Al-Razi mendalami bidang perubatan dan kemungkinan juga bidang falsafah dengan ibn Rabban al-Tabari. Selepas itu minatnya dalam falsafah kerohanian boleh dikesan dari gurunya ini, yang merupakan anak kepada seorang Rabbai yang mahir dalam kitab keagamaan (Scriptures). Menurut Prof.Hamed Abdel-reheem Ead, Profesor Kimia di Fakulti Sains, Universiti Cairo (Cf. the Alchemy Website): " (...) Al-Razi mulai mempelajari perubatan selepas lawatan pertamanya ke Baghdad, apabila dia berusia sekurang-kurangnya 30 tahun, di bawah ahli perubatan yang terkenal Ali ibn Sahl (Yahudi yang memasuki Islam, tergolong kepada sekolah perubatan Tabaristan atau Hyrcania yang terkenal. Dia menunjukkan kepakaran yang mendalam berkenaan bidang tersebut sehinggakan dia dengan pantas melepasi gurunya, dan menulis tidak kurang daripada seratus buku perubatan. Dia turut mengarang 33 penulisan (treatises) berkenaan sains semulajadi (tidak termasuk alkhemi),ilmu hisab dan astronomi (...)."

Al-Razi menjadi terkenal dalam bandar asalnya sebagai ahli perubatan. Dia menjadi Pengarah (Direktor) hospital Rayy (Cf. ibn Juljul, al-Qifti, ibn abi Usaibi'ah), semasa pemerintahan Mansur ibn Ishaq ibn Ahmad ibn Asad yang merupakan gabenor Rayy dari 290-296/902-908 bagi pihak sepupunya Ahmad ibn Isma'il ibn Ahmad, pemerintah Samanian kedua. Razi menujukan kitab perubatannya al-Tibb al-'Mansuri kepada Mansur ibn Ishaq ibn Ahmad , yang disahkan dalam manuskrip tulis tangan dalam bukunya. Ini disanggah oleh ibn al-Nadim', tetapi al-Qifti dan ibn abi Usaibi'ah mengesahkan bahawa yang bernama Mansur sememangnya Mansur ibn Isma'il yang meninggal pada 365/975. al-Razi berpindah dari Rayy ke Baghdad semasa pemerintahan Khalifah Muktafi (sekitar.289/901-295/907) di mana dia sekali lagi menjawat jawatan Ketua Pengarah (Chief Director) hospital.

Selepas kemangkatan al-Muktafi (295/907) al-Razi dikatakan kembali ke Rayy di mana dia mempunyai ramai pelajar dengannya. Sebagaimana diterangkan oleh Ibn al-Nadim dalam Fihrist, al-Razi ketika itu adalah Sheikh (gelaran bagi seseorang yang berhak mengajar) "with a big head similar to a sack", dikelilingi oleh beberapa surrounded by several bulatan pelajar. Apabila seseorang sampai dengan soalan saintifik, soalan ini disampaikan kepada pelajar 'bulatan pertama'. Sekiranya mereka tidak mengetahui jawapannya, ia disampaikan kepada 'bulatan kedua'... dan seterusnya, sehingga pada akhirnya, apabila kesemua yang lain telah gagal memberikan jawapan, ia akhirnya sampai kepada al-Razi sendiri. Kita tahu bahawa salah seorang daripada pelajarnya menjadi pakar perubatan. Al-Razi merupakan seorang yang pemurah, dengan sifat perikemanusiaan terhadap pesakitnya, dan murah hati terhadap golongan miskin, Dia sering kali memberikan mereka rawatan penuh tanpa mengenakan sebarang bayaran, ataupun sebarang bentuk bayaran lain. Apabila dia tidak bersama pelajar atau pesakitnya, dia sentiasa menulis atau belajar.

Fakta ini mungkin menjadi punca kepada melemahkan penglihatannya sehingga menyebabkan dia menjadi buta pada kedua belah matanya. Sesetengah mengatakan bahawa punca dia buta disebabkan dia makan terlalu banyak kacang (broad beans) (baqilah). Penyakit matanya bermula dengan katarak dan berakhir dengan buta sepenuhnya. Khabar angin menyebut dia enggan dirawat bagi katarak, mendakwa bahawa dia "telah melihat begitu banyak dunia sehinggakan dia tidak larat lagi melihatnya." Bagaimanapun, ini kelihatannya sebagai lelucuan dan bukannya berdasarkan fakta sejarah. Salah seorang penuntutnya dari Tabaristan datang bagi menjaganya, tetapi, menurut al-Biruni, dia enggan dirawat dan mengistiharkan bahawa ianya tidak berguna kerana waktu matinya telah dekat Beberapa hari kemudian dia meninggal di Rayy, pada 5 Sha'ban 313/27 Oktober 925.

Selain daripada Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari, yang mengajar al-Razi perubatan, Ibn al-Nadim mengatakan bahawa indicates al-Razi mempelajari falsafah dengan al-Balkhi, yang telah jauh mengembara dan mengetahui banyak perkara mengenai falsafah dan sains kunu. Sesetengah turut mendakwa bahawa al-Razi attributed sebahagian buku al-Balkhi berkenaan falsafah kepada dirinya sendiri. Tidak banyak yang diketahui mengenai al-Balkhi, walaupun nama penuhnya.

Penentang al-Razi, sebaliknya, diketahui ramai. Mereka termasuk yang berikut:

1. Abu al-Qasim al-Balki, ketua Mu'tazilah di Baghdad (m. 319/931), penulis semasa dengan al-Razi yang menulis banyak bangkangan terhadap buku al-Razi, terutamanya buku Ilm al-Ilahi. Percanggahannya dengan al-Razi menghasilkan (entailed pemikirannya berkenaan konsep 'Masa'.

2. Shuhaid ibn al-Husain al-Balkhi, dengan mana al-Razi terbabit dengan banyak pertikaian; satu daripadanya adalah konsep 'Nikmat', dijelaskan dalam bukunya Tafdll Ladhdhat al-Nafs di mana Abu Sulaiman al-Mantiqi al-Sijistani memetiknya dalam karangannya Siwan al-Hikmah. Al-Balkhi meninggal sebelum 329/940.

3. Abu Hatim al-Razi menjadi penentang al-Razi yang paling penting (m. 322/933-934) dan merupakan salah seorang pendakwah Isma'ili teragung. Dia menerbitkan pertikaian dengan al-Razi dalam bukunya A'lam al-Nubuwwah. Disebabkan buku ini, pemikiran al-Razi berkenaan Rasul dan Ugama kekal sehingga kini.

4. Ibn al-Tammar (kemungkinannya adalah abu Bakr Husain al-Tammar, menurut Kraus) merupakan seorang ahli perubatan dan dia turut mempunyai pertikaian dengan al-Razi, yang di rakamkan oleh abu Hatim al-Razi dalam A'lam al-Nubuwwah. Ibn al-Tammar tidak bersetuju dengan buku al-Razi, al-Tibb al-Ruhani tetapi al-Razi membalasnya. Malah, al-Razi menulis dua anti thesis (antitheses):

(a) Jawapan pertama berkenaan pertikaian al-Tammar dengan Misma'i berkenaan 'Jisim (Matter)'.

(b) Jawapan kedua kepada pendapat al-Tammar pada 'Atmosphera penduduk dalam bumu (subterranean habitations)'.

5.Yang berikut merupakan penulis yang disebut oleh al-Razi dalam penulisannya:

(a) al-Misma'i, seorang Mutakallim, yang menentang 'kebendaan (materialists)', dijawab oleh penulisan (treatise) al-Razi.

(b) Jarir, pakar perubatan yang mempunyai teori berkenaan 'Memakan mulberries hitam selepas minum air tembikai'.

(c) al-Hasan ibn Mubarik al-Ummi, kepada mana al-Razi menulis dua (epistles) dengan ulasan.

(d) al-Kayyal, seorang Mutakallim: al-Razi menulis buku berkenaan Theori berkenaan Imam nya.

(e) Mansur ibn Talhah, sebagai pengarang buku "Makhluk", yang dikritik oleh al-Razi.

(f) Muhammad ibn al-Laith al-Rasa'ili yang menentang alkhemist yang dipertikai oleh al-Razi.

6. Ahmad ibn al-Tayyib al-Sarakhasi (m. 286/899), merupakan semasa yang lebih tua pada al-Razi. Al-Razi mempertikai pendapatnya mengenai 'rasa pahit'. Tambahan lagi dia membangkang gurunya Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, berkenaan penulisannya, dalam mana dia merendah-rendahkan alkhemist.

Pakar pengobatan Al-Razi telahpun menyadari mengenai pentingnya kebersihan, seperti yang dapat dilihat dalam ketelitiannya ketika memilih tapak hospital Audidi. Al-Razi telah menggantungkan daging yang baru pada beberapa tempat yang dicadangkan sebagai tapak hospital Audidi dan memilih tempat yang daging menjadi busuk paling lambat. Konsep kebersihan udara dan tempat telah disedari oleh pakar perubatan Islam masa itu.

Buku pada alkimia

Ini adalah buku yang ditulis oleh al-Razi berkenaan kimia (alchemy), kebanyakannya dalam bahasa Parsi:

* Modkhele Taalimi
* Elaleh Ma'aaden
* Isbaate Sanaa'at
* Ketabeh Sang
* Ketabe Tadbir
* Ketabe Aksir
* Ketabe Sharafe Sanaa'at
* Ketabe Tartib, Ketabe Rahat, Buku Mudah
* Ketabe Tadabir
* Ketabe Shavahed
* Ketabe Azmayeshe Zar va Sim (Ujian pada Emas)
* Ketabe Serre Hakimaan
* Ketabe Serr (Buku berkenaan Rahsia)
* Ketabe Serre Serr (Rahsia pada rahsia)
* Buku pertama berkenaan Ujikaji
* Buku kedua berkenaan Ujikaji
* Resaale'ei Be Faan
* Arezooyeh Arezookhah
* Surat kepada wazir Ghasem bin Abdullah
* Ketabe Tabvib

dikutip dari : http://www.blogger.com

Al-kindi

2009-10-16T07:43:00.001-07:00

Al-Kindi hidup pada masa penerjemahan besar-besaan karya-karya Yunani ke dalam bahasa Arab. Dan memang, sejak didirikannya Bayt al-Hikmah oleh al-Ma’mun, al-Kindi sendiri turut aktif dalam kegiatan penerjemahan ini. Di samping menerjemah, al-Kindi juga memperbaiki terjemahan-terjemahan sebelumnya. Karena keahlian dan keluasan pandangannya, ia diangkat sebagai ahli di istana dan menjadi guru putra Khalifah al-Mu’tasim, Ahmad.

Ia adalah filosof berbangsa Arab dan dipandang sebagai filosof Muslim pertama. Memang, secara etnis, al-Kindi lahir dari keluarga berdarah Arab yang berasal dari suku Kindah, salah satu suku besar daerah Jazirah Arab Selatan. Salah satu kelebihan al-Kindi adalah menghadirkan filsafat Yunani kepada kaum Muslimin setelah terlebih dahulu mengislamkan pikiran-pikiran asing tersebut.

Al-Kindi telah menulis hampir seluruh ilmu pengetahuan yang berkembang pada saat itu. Tetapi, di antara sekian banyak ilmu, ia sangat menghargai matematika. Hal ini disebabkan karena matematika, bagi al-Kindi, adalah mukaddimah bagi siapa saja yang ingin mempelajari filsafat. Mukaddimah ini begitu penting sehingga tidak mungkin bagi seseorang untuk mencapai keahlian dalam filsafat tanpa terlebih dulu menguasai matematika. Matematika di sini meliputi ilmu tentang bilangan, harmoni, geometri dan astronomi.

Yang paling utama dari seluruh cakupan matematika di sini adalah ilmu bilangan atau aritmatika karena jika bilangan tidak ada, maka tidak akan ada sesuatu apapun. Di sini kita bisa melihat samar-samar pengaruh filsafat Pitagoras.

Al-Kindi membagi daya jiwa menjadi tiga: daya bernafsu (appetitive), daya pemarah (irascible), dan daya berpikir (cognitive atau rational). Sebagaimana Plato, ia membandingkan ketiga kekuatan jiwa ini dengan mengibaratkan daya berpikir sebagai sais kereta dan dua kekuatan lainnya (pemarah dan nafsu) sebagai dua ekor kuda yang menarik kereta tersebut. Jika akal budi dapat berkembang dengan baik, maka dua daya jiwa lainnya dapat dikendalikan dengan baik pula. Orang yang hidupnya dikendalikan oleh dorongan-dorongan nafsu birahi dan amarah diibaratkan al-Kindi seperti anjing dan babi, sedang bagi mereka yang menjadikan akal budi sebagai tuannya, mereka diibaratkan sebagai raja.

Menurut al-Kindi, fungsi filsafat sesungguhnya bukan untuk menggugat kebenaran wahyu atau untuk menuntut keunggulan yang lancang atau menuntut persamaan dengan wahyu. Filsafat haruslah sama sekali tidak mengajukan tuntutan sebagai jalan tertinggi menuju kebenaran dan mau merendahkan dirinya sebagai penunjang bagi wahyu.

Ia mendefinisikan filsafat sebagai pengetahuan tentang segala sesuatu sejauh jangkauan pengetahuan manusia. Karena itu, al-Kindi dengan tegas mengatakan bahwa filsafat memiliki keterbatasan dan bahwa ia tidak dapat mengatasi problem semisal mukjizat, surga, neraka, dan kehidupan akhirat. Dalam semangat ini pula, al-Kindi mempertahankan penciptaan dunia ex nihilio, kebangkitan jasmani, mukjizat, keabsahan wahyu, dan kelahiran dan kehancuran dunia oleh Tuhan.

(Source: Sekilas sejarah pemikiran filosof di atas dinukil dari buku Tujuh Filsuf Pembuka Pintu Gerbang Filsafat Modern, diterbitkan oleh LKiS, dikarang oleh Zainul Hamdi -warga Averroes)

Ummar Khayyam

2009-10-16T01:35:00.000-07:00

Umar Khayyām (18 Mei 1048 – 4 Desember 1131, dalam bahasa Persia عمر خیام), dilahirkan di Nishapur, Iran. Nama aslinya adalah Ghiyātsuddin Abulfatah 'Umar bin Ibrahim Khayyāmi Nisyābūri (غياث الدين ابو الفتح عمر بن ابراهيم خيام نيشابوري). Khayyām berarti "pembuat tenda" dalam bahasa Persia.

Pada masa hidupnya, ia terkenal sebagai seorang matematikawan dan astronom yang memperhitungkan bagaimana mengoreksi kalender Persia. Pada 15 Maret 1079, Sultan Jalaluddin Maliksyah Saljuqi (1072-1092) memberlakukan kalender yang telah diperbaiki Umar, seperti yang dilakukan oleh Julius Caesar di Eropa pada tahun 46 SM dengan koreksi terhadap Sosigenes, dan yang dilakukan oleh Paus Gregorius XIII pada Februari 1552 dengan kalender yang telah diperbaiki Aloysius Lilius (meskipun Britania Raya baru beralih dari Kalender Julian kepada kalender Gregorian pada 1751, dan Rusia baru melakukannya pada 1918).

Dia pun terkenal karena menemukan metode memecahkan persamaan kubik dengan memotong sebuah parabola dengan sebuah lingkaran

Pada 1073, Malik-Syah, penguasa Isfahan, mengundang Khayyām untuk membangun dan bekerja pada sebuah observatorium, bersama-sama dengan sejumlah ilmuwan terkemuka lainnya. Akhirnya, Khayyām dengan sangat akurat (mengoreksi hingga enam desimal di belakang koma) mengukur panjang satu tahun sebagai 365,24219858156 hari.

Ia terkenal di dunia Persia dan Islam karena observasi astronominya. Ia pernah membuat sebuah peta bintang (yang kini lenyap) di angkasa.

Filsafat Umar Khayyām agak berbeda dengan dogma-dogma umum Islam. Tidak jelas apakah ia percaya akan kehadiran Allah atau tidak, namun ia menolak pemahaman bahwa setiap kejadian dan fenomena adalah akibat dari campur tangan ilahi. Ia pun tidak percaya akan Hari Kiamat atau ganjaran serta hukuman setelah kematian. Sebaliknya, ia mendukung pandangan bahwa hukum-hukum alam menjelaskan semua fenomena dari kehidupan yang teramati. Para pejabat keagamaan berulang kali meminta dia menjelaskan pandangan-pandangannya yang berbeda tentang Islam. Khayyām akhirnya naik haji ke Mekkah untuk membuktikan bahwa ia adalah seorang muslim.

Dan, sementara Ayam Jantan berkokok, mereka yang berdiri di muka / Rumah Minum berseru - "Bukalah Pintu! / Engkau tahu betapa sedikit waktu yang kami punyai untuk singgah, / Dan bila kami pergi, mungkin kami takkan kembali lagi."

Demikian pula bagi mereka yang bersiap-siap untuk HARI INI, / Dan meyangka setelah ESOK menatap, / Seorang muazzin berseru dari Menara Kegelapan / "Hai orang bodoh! ganjaranmu bukan di Sini ataupun di Sana!"

Mengapa, semua orang Suci dan orang Bijak yang mendiskusikan / Tentang Dua Dunia dengan begitu cerdas, disodorkannya / Seperti Nabi-nabi bodoh; Kata-kata mereka untuk Dicemoohkan / Ditaburkan, dan mulut mereka tersumbat dengan Debu.

Oh, datanglah dengan Khayyam yang tua, dan tinggalkanlah Yang Bijak / Untuk berbicara; satu hal yang pasti, bahwa Kehidupan berjalan cepat; / Satu hal yang pasti, dan Sisanya adalah Dusta; / Bunga yang pernah sekali mekar, mati untuk selama-lamanya.

Diriku ketika masih muda begitu bergariah mengunjungi / Kaum Cerdik pandai dan Orang Suci, dan mendengarkan Perdebatan besar / Tentang ini dan tentang: namun terlebih lagi / Keluar dari Pintu yang sama seperti ketika kumasuk.

Dengan Benih Hikmat aku menabur, / Dan dengan tanganku sendiri mengusahakannya agar bertumbuh; / Dan cuma inilah Panen yang kupetik - / "Aku datang bagai Air, dan bagaikan Bayu aku pergi."

Ke dalam Jagad ini, dan tanpa mengetahui, / Entah ke mana, seperti Air yang mengalir begitu saja: / Dan dari padanya, seperti Sang Bayu yang meniup di Padang, / Aku tak tahu ke mana, bertiup sesukanya.

Jari yang Bergerak menulis; dan, setelah menulis, / Bergerak terus: bukan Kesalehanmu ataupun Kecerdikanmu / Yang akan memanggilnya kembali untuk membatalkan setengah Garis, / Tidak juga Air matamu menghapuskan sepatah Kata daripadanya.

Dan Cawan terbalik yang kita sebut Langit, / Yang di bawahnya kita merangkak hidup dan mati, / Janganlah mengangkat tanganmu kepadanya meminta tolong - karena Ia / Bergelung tanpa daya seperti Engkau dan Aku.

Omar Khayyám kini terkenal bukan hanya keberhasilan ilmiahnya, tetapi karena karya-karya sastranya. Ia diyakini telah menulis sekitar seribu puisi 400 baris. Di dunia berbahasa Inggris, ia paling dikenal karena The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám dalam terjemahan bahasa Inggris oleh Edward Fitzgerald (1809-1883).

Orang lain juga telah menerbitkan terjemahan-terjemahan sebagian dari rubáiyátnya (rubáiyát berarti "kuatrain"), tetapi terjemahan Fitzgeraldlah yang paling terkenal. Ada banyak pula terjemahan karya ini dalam bahasa-bahasa lain.

dikutip dari : http://id.wikipedia.org

Jabir Ibnu Hayyan

2009-10-16T01:33:00.000-07:00

Tak salah bila dunia mendapuknya sebagai bapak ki mia modern. Ahli kimia Mus lim terkemuka di era kekhalifahan yang dikenal di dunia Barat dengan pang gilan Geber itu memang sangat fenomenal. Betapa tidak, 10 abad se be lum ahli kimia Barat bernama John Dal ton (1766-1844)? mencetuskan teori mo lekul kimia, Jabir Ibnu Hayyan (721M – 815 M) telah menemukannya di abad ke-8 M.Hebatnya lagi, penemuan dan eksperimennya yang telah berumur 13 abad itu ternyata hingga kini masih tetap dijadikan rujukan.?? Dedikasinya dalam pengembangan ilmu kimia sungguh tak ternilai harganya. Tak heran, jika ilmuwan yang juga ahli farmasi itu dinobatkan sebagai renaissance man (manusia yang mencerahkan).

Tanpa kontribusinya, boleh jadi ilmu kimia tak berkembang pesat seperti saat ini. Ilmu pengetahuan modern sungguh telah berutang budi kepada Jabir yang dikenal sebagai seorang sufi itu. Jabir telah menorehkan sederet karyanya dalam 200 kitab. Sebanyak 80 kitab yang ditulisnya itu mengkaji dan mengupas seluk-beluk ilmu kimia. Sebuah pencapaian yang terbilang amat prestisius.

Itulah sebabnya, ahli sejarah Barat, Philip K Hitti dalam History of the Arabs berujar, ?’Sesudah ilmu kedokteran, astronomi, dan matematika, bangsa Arab juga memberikan sumbangan yang begitu besar di bidang kimia.’? Penyataan Hitti itu merupakan sebuah pengakuan Barat terhadap pencapaian yang telah ditorehkan umat Islam di era keemasan.

Sejatinya, ilmuwan kebanggaan umat Islam itu bernama lengkap Abu Musa Jabir Ibnu Hayyan. Asal-usul kesukuan Jabir memang tak terungkap secara jelas. Satu versi menyebutkan, Jabir adalah seorang Arab. Namun, versi lain menyebutkan ahli kimia kesohor itu adalah orang Persia.? Kebanyakan literatur menulis bahwa Jabir terlahir di Tus, Khurasan, Iran pada 721 M.

Saat terlahir, wilayah Iran berada dalam kekuasaan Dinasti Umayyah. Sang ayah bernama Hayyan Al-Azdi, seorang ahli farmasi berasal dari suku Arab Azd. Pada era kekuasaan Daulah Umayyah, sang ayah hijrah dari Yaman ke Kufah, salah satu kota pusat gerakan Syiah di Irak. Sang ayah merupakan pendukung Abbasiyah yang turut serta menggulingkan Dinasti Umayyah.

Ketika melakukan pemberontakan, Hayyan tertangkap di Khurasan dan dihukum mati. Sepeninggal sang ayah, Jabir dan keluarganya kembali ke Yaman. Jabir kecil pun mulai mempelajari Alquran, matematika, serta ilmu lainnya dari seorang ilmuwan bernama Harbi Al-Himyari.

Setelah Abbasiyah menggulingkan kekuasaan Umayyah, Jabir memutuskan untuk kembali ke Kufah. Di kota Syiah itulah, Jabir belajar dan merintis karier. Ketertarikannya pada bidang kimia, boleh jadi lantaran profesi sang ayah sebagai peracik obat. Jabir pun memutuskan untuk terjun di bidang kimia.

Jabir yang tumbuh besar di pusat peradaban Islam klasik itu menimba ilmu dari seorang imam termasyhur bernama Imam Ja’far Shadiq. Selain itu, ia juga sempat belajar dari Pangeran Khalin Ibnu Yazid. Jabir memulai kariernya di bidang kedokteran setelah berguru pada Barmaki Vizier? pada masa kekhalifahan Abbasiyah berada dibawah kepemimpinan Harun Ar-Rasyid.

Sejak saat itulah, Jabir bekerja keras mengelaborasi kimia di sebuah laboratorium dengan serangkaian eksperimen. Dalam karirnya, ia pernah bekerja di laboratorium dekat Bawwabah di Damaskus. Salah satu ciri khasnya, ia mendasari? eksperimen-eksperimen yang dilakukannya secara kuantitatif. Selain itu, instrumen yang digunakan dibuat sendiri, menggunakan bahan berasal dari logam, tumbuhan, dan hewani. ?’Saya pertama kali mengetahuinya? dengan melalui tangan dan otak saya, dan saya menelitinya hingga sebenar
mungkin, dan saya mencari kesalahan yang mungkin masih terpendam.’? Kalimat itu kerap dituliskan Jabir saat mengakhiri uraian suatu eksperimen yang telah dilakukannya.

Setelah sempat berkarier di Damas – kus, Jabir pun dikabarkan kembali ke Kufah. Dua abad pasca-berpulangnya Jabir, dalam sebuah penggalian jalan telah ditemukan bekas laboratorium tempat sang ilmuwan berkarya. Dari tempat itu ditemukan peralatan kimianya yang hingga kini masih mempesona serta sebatang emas yang cukup berat.

Begitu banyak sumbangan yang telah dihasilkan Jabir bagi pengembangan kimia. Berkat jasa Jabir-lah, ilmu pengetahuan modern bisa mengenal asam klorida, asam nitrat, asam sitrat, asam asetat, tehnik distilasi, dan tehnik kristalisasi. Jabir pulalah yang menemukan larutan aqua regia (dengan menggabungkan asam klorida dan asam nitrat) untuk melarutkan emas.

Keberhasilan penting lainnya yang dicapai Jabir adalah kemampuannya mengapli kasi kan pengetahuan me? ngenai kimia ke dalam proses pembuatan besi dan logam lainnya, serta pencegahan karat. Ter nyata, Jabir jugalah yang kali pertama mengaplikasikan penggunaan mangan dioksida pada pembuatan gelas kaca.

Adalah Jabir pula yang pertama kali mencatat tentang? pemanasan anggur akan menimbulkan gas yang mudah terbakar. Hal inilah yang kemudian memberikan jalan bagi Al-Razi untuk menemukan etanol.

Selain itu, Jabir pun berhasil menyempurnakan proses dasar sublimasi, peng uapan, pencairan, kristalisasi, pembuatan
kapur, penyulingan, pencelupan, pemurnian, sematan (fixation), amalgamasi, dan oksidasi-reduksi. Apa yang dihasilkannya itu merupakan teknikteknik kimia modern.

Tak heran, bila sosok dan pemikiran Jabir begitu berpengaruh bagi para ahli kimia Muslim lainnya seperti Al-Razi (9 M), Tughrai (12 M) dan Al-Iraqi (13 M). Tak cuma itu, buku-buku yang ditulisnya juga begitu besar pengaruhnya terhadap pengembangan ilmu kimia di Eropa. Jabir tutup usia pada tahun 815 M di Kufah.? heri ruslan (Republika)

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Adikarya Sang Ilmuwan Besar

Dedikasi dan prestasi yang dicapai Jabir Ibnu Hayyan dalam bidang kimia terekam dengan baik lewat buku-buku yang ditulisnya. Tak kurang dari 200 buku berhasil ditulisnya.? Sebanyak 80 judul buku di antaranya mengupas hasil-hasil eksperimen kimia yang dilakukannya. Buku-buku itu sungguh amat berpengaruh hingga sekarang.Sebanyak 112 buku karya Jabir secara khusus ditulis untuk dipersembahkan kepada Barmakid?sang guru?yang juga pembantu atau wazir Khalifah Harun Ar- Rasyid. Buku-buku itu ditulis dalam bahasa Arab. Pada abad pertengahan, orang-orang Barat mulai menerjemahkan karya-karya Jabir itu ke dalam bahasa Latin (Tabula Smaragdina).Buku-buku itu lalu menjadi rujukan pada ahli kimia di Eropa.

Selain itu, sebanyak 70 buku karya Jabir lainnya juga? dialihbahasakan ke dalam bahasa Latin pada abad pertengahan. Dari ke-70 kitab berpengaruh itu, salah satu yang terkenal adalah Kitab Al-Zuhra yang diterjemakan menjadi Book of Venus, serta Kitab Al-Ahjar yang dialihbahasakan menjadi Book of Stones.

Sebanyak 10 buku yang ditulis Jabir lainnya adalah kitab pembetulan yang berisi penjelasan mengenai ahli kimia Yunani seperti Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato dan Aristoteles. Sisanya, kitab yang ditulis Jabir merupakan buku-buku keseimbangan. Dalam buku kelompok ini, Jabir melahirkan teori yang begitu terkenal, yakni ?teori keseimbangan alam.?

Risalat-risalat karya Jabir yang secara khusus membedah ilmu kimia antara lain? Kitab Al-Kimya dan Kitab Al-Sab?een. Kitab penting itu juga telah diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Latin di abad pertengahan. Kitab Al-Kimya menjadi sangat populer di Barat setelah diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Ingris oleh orang Inggris Robert of Chester pada 1144 M.

Al-Kimya versi alih bahasa berjudul ?The Book of Composition of Alchemy?. Sedangkan, Kitab Al-Sab?een diterjemahkan oleh Gerard of Cremona. Beberapa karya Jabir lainnya juga dialihbahasakan oleh Berthelot ke dalam bahasa Inggris antara lain; ?Book of Kingdom?, ?Book of the Balances?, serta ?Book of Eastern Mercur.?

Buku karya Jabir lainnya juga mendapat perhatian dari ilmuwan Inggris bernama Richard Russel. Pada abad ke-17 M, Russel menerjemahkan buku yang ditulis Jabir ke dalam bahasa Ingris berjudul ?Sum of Perfection?.

Dalam buku itu, Russel memperkenalkan Jabir dengan nama Geber?seorang pange? ran Arab terkenal yang juga seorang filsuf. ?Sum of Perfection? selama beberapa abad begitu populer dan berpengaruh. Buku itu telah mendorong terjadinya evolusi kimia modern. Begitu berpengaruhnya buku-buku karya Jabir di Eropa dan Barat umumnya telah dibuktikan dengan munculnya beberapa istilah teknis yang ditemukan dalam kamus kimia Barat dan menjadi kosa kata ilmia yang sebelumnya digunakan Jabir seperti istilah ?alkali.?? hri (Republika)

Muhammad bin Musa Al-Khawarizmi

2009-10-16T01:05:00.000-07:00

Muḥammad bin Mūsā al-Khawārizmī (Arab: محمد بن موسى الخوارزمي) adalah seorang ahli matematika, astronomi, astrologi, dan geografi yang berasal dari Persia. Lahir sekitar tahun 780 di Khwārizm (sekarang Khiva, Uzbekistan) dan wafat sekitar tahun 850. Hampir sepanjang hidupnya, ia bekerja sebagai dosen di Sekolah Kehormatan di Baghdad

Buku pertamanya, al-Jabar, adalah buku pertama yang membahas solusi sistematik dari linear dan notasi kuadrat. Sehingga ia disebut sebagai Bapak Aljabar. Translasi bahasa Latin dari Aritmatika beliau, yang memperkenalkan angka India, kemudian diperkenalkan sebagai Sistem Penomoran Posisi Desimal di dunia Barat pada abad ke 12. Ia merevisi dan menyesuaikan Geografi Ptolemeus sebaik mengerjakan tulisan-tulisan tentang astronomi dan astrologi.

Kontribusi beliau tak hanya berdampak besar pada matematika, tapi juga dalam kebahasaan. Kata Aljabar berasal dari kata al-Jabr, satu dari dua operasi dalam matematika untuk menyelesaikan notasi kuadrat, yang tercantum dalam buku beliau. Kata logarisme dan logaritma diambil dari kata Algorismi, Latinisasi dari nama beliau. Nama beliau juga di serap dalam bahasa Spanyol Guarismo dan dalam bahasa Portugis, Algarismo yang berarti digit.

Sedikit yang dapat diketahui dari hidup beliau, bahkan lokasi tempat lahirnya sekailpun. Nama beliau mungkin berasal dari Khwarizm (Khiva) yang berada di Provinsi Khurasan pada masa kekuasaan Bani Abbasiyah (sekarang Xorazm, salah satu provinsi Uzbekistan). Gelar beliau adalah Abū ‘Abd Allāh (Arab: أبو عبد الله) atau Abū Ja’far.

Sejarawan al-Tabari menamakan beliau Muhammad bin Musa al-Khwārizmī al-Majousi al-Katarbali (Arab: محمد بن موسى الخوارزميّ المجوسيّ القطربّليّ). Sebutan al-Qutrubbulli mengindikasikan beliau berasal dari Qutrubbull, kota kecil dekat Baghdad.

Tentang agama al-Khawārizmī', Toomer menulis:

Sebutan lain untuk beliau diberikan oleh al-Ṭabarī, "al-Majūsī," dapat dilihat mengindikasikan ia adalah pengikut Zoroaster.Ini mungkin terjadi pada orang yang berasal dari Iran]]. Tetapi, kemudian buku Al-Jabar beliau menunujukkan beliau adalah seorang Muslim Ortodok,jadi sebutan Al-Tabari ditujukan pada saat ia muda, ia beragama Majusi.

Dalam Kitāb al-Fihrist Ibnu al-Nadim, kita temukan sejarah singkat beliau, bersama dengan karya-karya tulis beliau. Al-Khawarizmi menekuni hampir seluruh pekerjaannya antara 813-833. setelah Islam masuk ke Persia, Baghdad menjadi pusat ilmu dan perdagangan, dan banyak pedagang dan ilmuwan dari Cina dan India berkelana ke kota ini, yang juga dilakukan beliau. Dia bekerja di Baghdad pada Sekolah Kehormatan yang didirikan oleh Khalifah Bani Abbasiyah Al-Ma'mun, tempat ia belajar ilmu alam dan matematika, termasuk mempelajari terjemahan manuskrip Sanskerta dan Yunani.

Karya terbesar beliau dalam matematika, astronomi, astrologi, geografi, kartografi, sebagai fondasi dan kemudian lebih inovatif dalam aljabar, trigonometri, dan pada bidang lain yang beliau tekuni. Pendekatan logika dan sistematis beliau dalam penyelesaian linear dan notasi kuadrat memberikan keakuratan dalam disiplin aljabar, nama yang diambil dari nama salah satu buku beliau pada tahun 830 M, al-Kitab al-mukhtasar fi hisab al-jabr wa'l-muqabala (Arab الكتاب المختصر في حساب الجبر والمقابلة) atau: "Buku Rangkuman untuk Kalkulasi dengan Melengkapakan dan Menyeimbangkan”, buku pertama beliau yang kemudian diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Latin pada abad ke-12.

Pada buku beliau, Kalkulasi dengan angka Hindu, yang ditulis tahun 825, memprinsipkan kemampuan difusi angaka India ke dalam perangkaan timur tengah dan kemudian Eropa. Buku beliau diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Latin, Algoritmi de numero Indorum, menunjukkan kata algoritmi menjadi bahasa Latin.

Beberapa kontribusi beliau berdasar pada Astronomi Persia dan Babilonia, angka India, dan sumber-sumber Yunani.

Sistemasi dan koreksi beliau terhadap data Ptolemeus pada geografi adalah sebuah penghargaan untuk Afrika dan Timur –Tengah. Buku besar beliau yang lain, Kitab surat al-ard ("Pemandangan Bumi";di terjemahkan oleh Geography), yang memperlihatkan koordinat dan lokalisasi yang diketahui dasar dunia, dengan berani mengevaluasi nilai panjang dari Laut Mediterania dan lokasi kota-kota di Asia dan Afrika yang sebelumnya diberikan oleh Ptolemeus.

Ia kemudian mengepalai konstruksi peta dunia untuk Khalifah Al-Ma’mun dan berpartisipasi dalam proyek menentukan tata letak di Bumi, bersama dengan 70 ahli geografi lain untuk membuat peta yang kemudian disebut “ketahuilah dunia”. Ketika hasil kerjanya dikopi dan di transfer ke Eropa dan Bahasa Latin, menimbulkan dampak yang hebat pada kemajuan matematika dasar di Eropa. Ia juga menulis tentang astrolab dan sundial.

al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-jabr wa-l-muqābala (Arab: الكتاب المختصر في حساب الجبر والمقابلة Buku Rangkuman Kalkulasi dengan Melengkapkan dan Menyeimbangkan) adalah buku matematika yang ditulis tahun 830.

Buku tersebut merangkum definisi aljabar. Buku ini diterjemahkan ke dalam Bahasa Latin berjudul Liber algebrae et almucabala oleh Robert of Chester (Segovia, 1145) dan juga oleh Gerard of Cremona.

Metode beliau dalam menyelesaikan linear dan notasi kuadrat dilakukan dengan meredusi notasi ke dalam 6 bentuk standar (dimana b dan c adalah angka positif)

* Angka ekual kuadrat (ax2 = c)
* Angka ekual akar (bx = c)
* Kuadrat dan akar ekual (ax2 + bx = c)
* Kuadrat dan angka akar ekual (ax2 + c = bx)
* Akar dan angka kuadrat ekual (bx + c = ax2)
* Kuadrat ekual akar (ax2 = bx)

Dengan membagi koefisien dari kuadrat dan menggunakan dua operasi aljabar (Arab: الجبر penyimpanan atau melengkapkan) dan al-muqābala (menyeimbangkan). Aljabar adalah proses memindahkan unit negatif, akar dan kuadrat dari notasi dengan menggunakan nilai yang sama di kedua sisi. Contohnya, x2 = 40x - 4x2 disederhanakan menjadi 5x2 = 40x. Al-muqābala adalah proses memberikan kuantitas dari tipe yang sama ke sisi notasi. Contohnya, x2 + 14 = x + 5 disederhanakan ke x2 + 9 = x.

Beberapa pengarang telah menerbitkan tulisan dengan nama Kitāb al-ǧabr wa-l-muqābala, termasuk Abū Ḥanīfa al-Dīnawarī, Abū Kāmil (Rasāla fi al-ǧabr wa-al-muqābala), Abū Muḥammad al-‘Adlī, Abū Yūsuf al-Miṣṣīṣī, Ibnu Turk, Sind bin ‘Alī, Sahl bin Bišr, dan Šarafaddin

Buku kedua besar beliau adalah tentang aritmatika, yang bertahan dalam Bahasa Latin, tapi hilang dari Bahasa Arab yang aslinya. Translasi dilakukan pada abad ke-12 oleh Adelard of Bath, yang juga menerjemahkan tabel astronomi pada 1126.

Pada manuskrip Latin,biasanya tak bernama,tetapi umumnya dimulai dengan kata: Dixit algorizmi ("Seperti kata al-Khawārizmī"), atau Algoritmi de numero Indorum ("al-Kahwārizmī pada angka kesenian Hindu"), sebuah nama baru di berikan pada hasil kerja beliau oleh Baldassarre Boncompagni pada 1857. Kitab aslinya mungkin bernama Kitāb al-Jam’a wa-l-tafrīq bi-ḥisāb al-Hind ("Buku Penjumlahan dan Pengurangan berdasarkan Kalkulasi Hindu")

Peta abad ke-15 berdasarkan Ptolemeus sebagai perbandingan.

Buku ketiga beliau yang terkenal adalah Kitāb ṣūrat al-Arḍ (Bhs.Arab: كتاب صورة الأرض "Buku Pemandangan Dunia" atau "Kenampakan Bumi" diterjemahkan oleh Geography), yang selesai pada 833 adalah revisi dan penyempurnaan Geografi Ptolemeus, terdiri dari daftar 2402 koordinat dari kota-kota dan tempat geografis lainnya mengikuti perkembangan umum.

Hanya ada satu kopi dari Kitāb ṣūrat al-Arḍ, yang tersimpan di Perpustakaan Universitas Strasbourg. Terjemahan Latinnya tersimpan di Biblioteca Nacional de España di Madrid. Judul lengkap buku beliau adalah Buku Pendekatan Tentang Dunia, dengan Kota-Kota, Gunung, Laut, Semua Pulau dan Sungai, ditulis oleh Abu Ja’far Muhammad bin Musa al-Khawarizmi berdasarkan pendalaman geografis yamg ditulis oleh Ptolemeus dan Claudius.

Buku ini dimulai dengan daftar bujur dan lintang, termasuk “Zona Cuaca”, yang menulis pengaruh lintang dan bujur terhadap cuaca. Oleh Paul Gallez, dikatakan bahwa ini sanagat bermanfaat untuk menentukan posisi kita dalam kondisi yang buruk untuk membuat pendekatan praktis. Baik dalam salinan Arab maupun Latin, tak ada yang tertinggal dari buku ini. Oleh karena itu, Hubert Daunicht merekonstruksi kembali peta tersebut dari daftar koordinat. Ia berusaha mencari pendekatan yang mirip dengan peta tersebut.

Kampus Corpus Christi MS 283

Buku Zīj al-sindhind (Arab: زيج "tabel astronomi”) adalah karya yang terdiri dari 37 simbol pada kalkulasi kalender astronomi dan 116 tabel dengan kalenderial, astronomial dan data astrologial sebaik data yang diakui sekarang.

Versi aslinya dalam Bahasa Arab (ditulis 820) hilang, tapi versi lain oleh astronomer Spanyol Maslama al-Majrīṭī (1000) tetap bertahan dalam bahasa Latin, yang diterjemahkan oleh Adelard of Bath (26 Januari 1126). Empat manuskrip lainnya dalam bahasa Latin tetap ada di Bibliothèque publique (Chartres), the Bibliothèque Mazarine (Paris), the Bibliotheca Nacional (Madrid) dan the Bodleian Library (Oxford)

Al-Khawārizmī juga menulis tentang Penanggalan Yahudi (Risāla fi istikhrāj taʾrīkh al-yahūd "Petunjuk Penanggalan Yahudi"). Yang menerangkan 19-tahun siklus interkalasi, hukum yang mengatur pada hari apa dari suatu minggu bulan Tishrī dimulai; memperhitungkan interval antara Era Yahudi(penciptaan Adam) dan era Seleucid ; dan memberikan hukum tentang bujur matahari dan bulan menggunakan Kalender Yahudi. Sama dengan yang ditemukan oleh al-Bīrūnī dan Maimonides.

Beberapa manuskrip Arab di Berlin, Istanbul, Tashkent, Kairo dan Paris berisi pendekatan material yang berkemungkinan berasal dari al-Khawarizmī. Manuskrip di Istanbul berisi tentang sundial, yang disebut dalam Fihirst. Karya lain, seperti determinasi arah Mekkah adalah salah satu astronomi sferik.

Dua karya berisi tentang pagi (Ma’rifat sa’at al-mashriq fī kull balad) dan determinasi azimut dari tinggi (Ma’rifat al-samt min qibal al-irtifā’).

Beliau juga menulis 2 buku tentang penggunaan dan perakitan astrolab. Ibnu al-Nadim dalam Kitab al-Fihrist (sebuah indeks dari bahasa Arab) juga menyebutkan Kitāb ar-Ruḵāma(t) (buku sundial) dan Kitab al-Tarikh (buku sejarah) tapi 2 yang terakhir disebut telah hilang.

dikutip dari : http://id.wikipedia.org

Abdul Qadir Jaelani

2009-10-16T00:36:00.000-07:00

Abdul Qodir al Jaelani (bernama lengkap Muhyi al Din Abu Muhammad Abdul Qodir ibn Abi Shalih Zango Dost al Jaelani). Lahir di Jailan atau Kailan tahun 470 H/1077 M sehingga di akhir nama beliau ditambahkan kata al Jailani atau al Kailani atau juga al Jiliydan. Biografi beliau dimuat dalam Kitab الذيل على طبق الحنابلة Adz Dzail ‘Ala Thabaqil Hanabilah I/301-390, nomor 134, karya Imam Ibnu Rajab al Hambali. Ia wafat pada hari Sabtu malam, setelah magrib, pada tanggal 9 Rabiul akhir di daerah Babul Azajwafat di Baghdad pada 561 H/1166 M.

Dalam usia 8 tahun ia sudah meninggalkan Jilan menuju Baghdad pada tahun 488 H/1095 M. Karena tidak diterima belajar di Madrasah Nizhamiyah Baghdad, yang waktu itu dipimpin Ahmad al Ghazali, yang menggantikan saudaranya Abu Hamid al Ghazali. Di Baghdad beliau belajar kepada beberapa orang ulama seperti Ibnu Aqil, Abul Khatthat, Abul Husein al Farra’ dan juga Abu Sa’ad al Muharrimi. Belaiu menimba ilmu pada ulama-ulama tersebut hingga mampu menguasai ilmu-ilmu ushul dan juga perbedaan-perbedaan pendapat para ulama. Dengan kemampuan itu, Abu Sa’ad al Mukharrimi yang membangun sekolah kecil-kecilan di daerah Babul Azaj menyerahkan pengelolaan sekolah itu sepenuhnya kepada Syeikh Abdul Qadir al Jailani. Ia mengelola sekolah ini dengan sungguh-sungguh. Bermukim di sana sambil memberikan nasehat kepada orang-orang di sekitar sekolah tersebut. Banyak orang yang bertaubat setelah mendengar nasehat beliau. Banyak pula orang yang bersimpati kepada beliau, lalu datang menimba ilmu di sekolah beliau hingga sekolah itu tidak mampu menampung lagi.

Murid-murid beliau banyak yang menjadi ulama terkenal, seperti al Hafidz Abdul Ghani yang menyusun kitab Umdatul Ahkam Fi Kalami Khairil Anam, Syeikh Qudamah, penyusun kitab fiqh terkenal al Mughni.

Syeikh Ibnu Qudamah sempat tinggal bersama beliau selama satu bulan sembilan hari. Kesempatan ini digunakan untuk belajar kepada Syeikh Abdul Qadir al Jailani sampai beliau meninggal dunia. (Siyar A’lamin Nubala XX/442).

Syeikh Ibnu Qudamah rahimahullah ketika ditanya tentang Syeikh Abdul Qadir menjawab, ”Kami sempat berjumpa dengan beliau di akhir masa kehidupannya. Ia menempatkan kami di sekolahnya. Ia sangat perhatian terhadap kami. Kadang beliau mengutus putra beliau yang bernama Yahya untuk menyalakan lampu buat kami. Ia senantiasa menjadi imam dalam shalat fardhu.”

Beliau adalah seorang yang berilmu, beraqidah Ahlu Sunnah, dan mengikuti jalan Salaf al Shalih. Belaiau dikenal pula banyak memiliki karamah. Tetapi, banyak (pula) orang yang membuat-buat kedustaan atas nama beliau. Kedustaan itu baik berupa kisah-kisah, perkataan-perkataan, ajaran-ajaran, tariqah (tarekat/jalan) yang berbeda dengan jalan Rasulullah, para sahabatnya, dan lainnya. Di antaranya dapat diketahui dari pendapat Imam Ibnu Rajab.

Syeikh Abdul Qadir al Jaelani adalah seorang yang diagungkan pada masanya. Diagungkan oleh para syeikh, ulama, dan ahli zuhud. Ia banyak memiliki keutamaan dan karamah. Tetapi, ada seorang yang bernama al Muqri’ Abul Hasan asy Syathnufi al Mishri (nama lengkapnya adalah Ali Ibnu Yusuf bin Jarir al Lakhmi asy Syathnufi) yang mengumpulkan kisah-kisah dan keutamaan-keutamaan Syeikh Abdul Qadir al Jailani dalam tiga jilid kitab. Al Muqri' lahir di Kairo tahun 640 H, meninggal tahun 713 H. Dia dituduh berdusta dan tidak bertemu dengan Syeikh Abdul Qadir al Jailani. Dia telah menulis perkara-perkara yang aneh dan besar (kebohongannya).

"Cukuplah seorang itu berdusta, jika dia menceritakan yang dia dengar", demikian kata Imam Ibnu Rajab. "Aku telah melihat sebagian kitab ini, tetapi hatiku tidak tentram untuk berpegang dengannya, sehingga aku tidak meriwayatkan apa yang ada di dalamnya. Kecuali kisah-kisah yang telah masyhur dan terkenal dari selain kitab ini. Karena kitab ini banyak berisi riwayat dari orang-orang yang tidak dikenal. Juga terdapat perkara-perkara yang jauh dari agama dan akal, kesesatan-kesesatan, dakwaan-dakwaan dan perkataan yang batil tidak berbatas, seperti kisah Syeikh Abdul Qadir menghidupkan ayam yang telah mati, dan sebagainya. Semua itu tidak pantas dinisbatkan kepada Syeikh Abdul Qadir al Jailani rahimahullah."

Kemudian didapatkan pula bahwa al Kamal Ja’far al Adfwi (nama lengkapnya Ja’far bin Tsa’lab bin Ja’far bin Ali bin Muthahhar bin Naufal al Adfawi), seorang ulama bermadzhab Syafi’i. Ia dilahirkan pada pertengahan bulan Sya’ban tahun 685 H dan wafat tahun 748 H di Kairo. Biografi beliau dimuat oleh al Hafidz di dalam kitab Ad Durarul Kaminah, biografi nomor 1452. al Kamal menyebutkan bahwa asy Syathnufi sendiri tertuduh berdusta atas kisah-kisah yang diriwayatkannya dalam kitab ini.(Dinukil dari kitab At Tashawwuf Fii Mizanil Bahtsi Wat Tahqiq, hal. 509, karya Syeikh Abdul Qadir bin Habibullah as Sindi, Penerbit Darul Manar, Cet. II, 8 Dzulqa'dah 1415 H / 8 April 1995 M.)

Imam Ibnu Rajab juga berkata, ”Syeikh Abdul Qadir al Jailani rahimahullah memiliki pemahaman yang bagus dalam masalah tauhid, sifat-sifat Allah, takdir, dan ilmu-ilmu ma’rifat yang sesuai dengan sunnah."

Karya beliau, antara lain :

1. al Ghunyah Li Thalibi Thariqil Haq,
2. Futuhul Ghaib.

Murid-muridnya mengumpulkan ihwal yang berkaitan dengan nasehat dari majelis-majelis beliau. Dalam masalah-masalah sifat, takdir dan lainnya, ia berpegang dengan sunnah. Ia membantah dengan keras terhadap orang-orang yang menyelisihi sunnah.

Sam’ani berkata, ” Syeikh Abdul Qadir Al Jailani adalah penduduk kota Jailan. Ia seorang Imam bermadzhab Hambali. Menjadi guru besar madzhab ini pada masa hidup beliau.” Imam Adz Dzahabi menyebutkan biografi Syeikh Abdul Qadir Al Jailani dalam Siyar A’lamin Nubala, dan menukilkan perkataan Syeikh sebagai berikut,”Lebih dari lima ratus orang masuk Islam lewat tanganku, dan lebih dari seratus ribu orang telah bertaubat.”

Imam Adz Dzahabi menukilkan perkataan-perkataan dan perbuatan-perbuatan Syeikh Abdul Qadir yang aneh-aneh sehingga memberikan kesan seakan-akan beliau mengetahui hal-hal yang ghaib. Kemudian mengakhiri perkataan, ”Intinya Syeikh Abdul Qadir memiliki kedudukan yang agung. Tetapi terdapat kritikan-kritikan terhadap sebagian perkataannya dan Allah menjanjikan (ampunan atas kesalahan-kesalahan orang beriman ). Namun sebagian perkataannya merupakan kedustaan atas nama beliau.”( Siyar XX/451 ). Imam Adz Dzahabi juga berkata, ” Tidak ada seorangpun para kibar masyasyeikh yang riwayat hidup dan karamahnya lebih banyak kisah hikayat, selain Syeikh Abdul Qadir Al Jailani, dan banyak diantara riwayat-riwayat itu yang tidak benar bahkan ada yang mustahil terjadi“.

Syeikh Rabi’ bin Hadi Al Madkhali berkata dalam kitabnya, Al Haddul Fashil,hal.136, ” Aku telah mendapatkan aqidah beliau ( Syeikh Abdul Qadir Al Jaelani ) didalam kitabnya yang bernama Al Ghunyah. (Lihat kitab Al-Ghunyah I/83-94) Maka aku mengetahui bahwa dia sebagai seorang Salafi. Ia menetapkan nama-nama dan sifat-sifat Allah dan aqidah-aqidah lainnya di atas manhaj Salaf. Ia juga membantah kelompok-kelompok Syi’ah, Rafidhah, Jahmiyyah, Jabariyyah, Salimiyah, dan kelompok lainnya dengan manhaj Salaf.” (At Tashawwuf Fii Mizanil Bahtsi Wat Tahqiq, hal. 509, karya Syeikh Abdul Qadir bin Habibullah As Sindi, Penerbit Darul Manar, Cet. II, 8 Dzulqa’dah 1415 H / 8 April 1995 M.)

Inilah tentang beliau secara ringkas. Seorang ‘alim Salafi, Sunni, tetapi banyak orang yang menyanjung dan membuat kedustaan atas nama beliau. Sedangkan beliau berlepas diri dari semua kebohongan itu. Wallahu a’lam bishshawwab.

Al-Jaba’i berkata bahwa Syaikh Abdul Qadir al-Jaelani pernah berkata kepadanya, “Tidur dan bangunku sudah diatur. Pada suatu saat dalam dadaku timbul keinginan yang kuat untuk berbicara. Begitu kuatnya sampai aku merasa tercekik jika tidak berbicara. Dan ketika berbicara, aku tidak dapat menghentikannya. Pada saat itu ada dua atau tiga orang yang mendengarkan perkataanku. Kemudian mereka mengabarkan apa yang aku ucapkan kepada orang-orang, dan merekapun berduyun-duyun mendatangiku di masjid Bab Al-Halbah. Karena tidak memungkinkan lagi, aku dipindahkan ke tengah kota dan dikelilingi dengan lampu. Orang-orang tetap datang di malam hari dengan membawa lilin dan obor hingga memenuhi tempat tersebut. Kemudian, aku dibawa ke luar kota dan ditempatkan di sebuah mushalla. Namun, orang-orang tetap datang kepadaku, dengan mengendarai kuda, unta bahkan keledai dan menempati tempat di sekelilingku. Saat itu hadir sekitar 70 orang para wali radhiallahu 'anhum]].

Kemudian, Syaikh Abdul Qadir melanjutkan, “Aku melihat Rasulullah SAW sebelum dzuhur, beliau berkata kepadaku, "anakku, mengapa engkau tidak berbicara?". Aku menjawab, "Ayahku, bagaimana aku yang non arab ini berbicara di depan orang-orang fasih dari Baghdad?". Ia berkata, "buka mulutmu". Lalu, beliau meniup 7 kali ke dalam mulutku kemudian berkata, ”bicaralah dan ajak mereka ke jalan Allah dengan hikmah dan peringatan yang baik”. Setelah itu, aku shalat dzuhur dan duduk serta mendapati jumlah yang sangat luar biasa banyaknya sehingga membuatku gemetar. Kemudian aku melihat Ali r.a. datang dan berkata, "buka mulutmu". Ia lalu meniup 6 kali ke dalam mulutku dan ketika aku bertanya kepadanya mengapa beliau tidak meniup 7 kali seperti yang dilakukan Rasulullah SAW, beliau menjawab bahwa beliau melakukan itu karena rasa hormat beliau kepada RasuluLlah SAW. Kemudian, aku berkata, "Pikiran, sang penyelam yang mencari mutiara ma’rifah dengan menyelami laut hati, mencampakkannya ke pantai dada , dilelang oleh lidah sang calo, kemudian dibeli dengan permata ketaatan dalam rumah yang diizinkan Allah untuk diangkat”. Ia kemudian menyitir, "Dan untuk wanita seperti Laila, seorang pria dapat membunuh dirinya dan menjadikan maut dan siksaan sebagai sesuatu yang manis."

Dalam beberapa manuskrip didapatkan bahwa Syaikh Abdul Qadir al Jaelani berkata, ”Sebuah suara berkata kepadaku saat aku berada di pengasingan diri, "kembali ke Baghdad dan ceramahilah orang-orang". Aku pun ke Baghdad dan menemukan para penduduknya dalam kondisi yang tidak aku sukai dan karena itulah aku tidak jadi mengikuti mereka". "Sesungguhnya" kata suara tersebut, "Mereka akan mendapatkan manfaat dari keberadaan dirimu". "Apa hubungan mereka dengan keselamatan agamaku/keyakinanku" tanyaku. "Kembali (ke Baghdad) dan engkau akan mendapatkan keselamatan agamamu" jawab suara itu.

Aku pun menbuat 70 perjanjian dengan Allah. Di antaranya adalah tidak ada seorang pun yang menentangku dan tidak ada seorang muridku yang meninggal kecuali dalam keadaan bertaubat. Setelah itu, aku kembali ke Baghdad dan mulai berceramah.

Suatu ketika, saat aku berceramah aku melihat sebuah cahaya terang benderang mendatangi aku. "Apa ini dan ada apa?" tanyaku. "Rasulullah SAW akan datang menemuimu untuk memberikan selamat" jawab sebuah suara. Sinar tersebut semakin membesar dan aku mulai masuk dalam kondisi spiritual yang membuatku setengah sadar. Lalu, aku melihat RasuLullah SAW di depan mimbar, mengambang di udara dan memanggilku, "Wahai Abdul Qadir". Begitu gembiranya aku dengan kedatangan Rasulullah SAW, aku melangkah naik ke udara menghampirinya. Ia meniup ke dalam mulutku 7 kali. Kemudian Ali datang dan meniup ke dalam mulutku 3 kali. "Mengapa engkau tidak melakukan seperti yang dilakukan Rasulullah SAW?" tanyaku kepadanya. "Sebagai rasa hormatku kepada Rasulullah SAW" jawab beliau.

Rasulullah SAW kemudian memakaikan jubah kehormatan kepadaku. "apa ini?" tanyaku. "Ini" jawab Rasulullah, "adalah jubah kewalianmu dan dikhususkan kepada orang-orang yang mendapat derajad Qutb dalam jenjang kewalian". Setelah itu, aku pun tercerahkan dan mulai berceramah.

Saat Khidir as. Datang hendak mengujiku dengan ujian yang diberikan kepada para wali sebelumku, Allah membukakan rahasianya dan apa yang akan dikatakannya kepadaku. Aku berkata kepadanya, ”Wahai Khidir, apabila engkau berkata kepadaku, "Engkau tidak akan sabar kepadaku", aku akan berkata kepadamu, "Engkau tidak akan sabar kepadaku". "Wahai Khidir, Engkau termasuk golongan Israel sedangkan aku termasuk golongan Muhammad, inilah aku dan engkau. Aku dan engkau seperti sebuah bola dan lapangan, yang ini Muhammad dan yang ini ar Rahman, ini kuda berpelana, busur terentang dan pedang terhunus.”

Al-Khattab pelayan Syaikh Abdul QAdir meriwayatkan bahwa suatu hari ketika beliau sedang berceramah tiba-tiba beliau berjalan naik ke udara dan berkata, “Hai orang Israel, dengarkan apa yang dikatakan oleh kaum Muhammad” lalu kembali ke tempatnya. Saat ditanya mengenai hal tersebut beliau menjawab, ”Tadi Abu Abbas al Khidir as lewat dan aku pun berbicara kepadanya seperti yang kalian dengar tadi dan ia berhenti”.

Guru dan teladan kita Syaikh Abdul Qadir al Jilli berkata, ”Seorang Syaikh tidak dapat dikatakan mencapai puncak spiritual kecuali apabila 12 karakter berikut ini telah mendarah daging dalam dirinya.

1. Dua karakter dari Allah yaitu dia menjadi seorang yang sattar (menutup aib) dan ghaffar (pemaaf).
2. Dua karakter dari Rasulullah SAW yaitu penyayang dan lembut.
3. Dua karakter dari Abu Bakar yaitu jujur dan dapat dipercaya.
4. Dua karakter dari Umar yaitu amar ma’ruf nahi munkar.
5. Dua karakter dari Utsman yaitu dermawan dan bangun (tahajjud) pada waktu orang lain sedang tidur.
6. Dua karakter dari Ali yaitu aalim (cerdas/intelek) dan pemberani.

Masih berkenaan dengan pembicaraan di atas dalam bait syair yang dinisbatkan kepada beliau dikatakan:

Bila lima perkara tidak terdapat dalam diri seorang syaikh maka ia adalah Dajjal yang mengajak kepada kesesatan.

Dia harus sangat mengetahui hukum-hukum syariat dzahir, mencari ilmu hakikah dari sumbernya, hormat dan ramah kepada tamu, lemah lembut kepada si miskin, mengawasi para muridnya sedang ia selalu merasa diawasi oleh Allah.

Syaikh Abdul Qadir juga menyatakan bahwa Syaikh al Junaid mengajarkan standar al Quran dan Sunnah kepada kita untuk menilai seorang syaikh. Apabila ia tidak hafal al Quran, tidak menulis dan menghafal Hadits, dia tidak pantas untuk diikuti.

Menurut saya (penulis buku) yang harus dimiliki seorang syaikh ketika mendidik seseorang adalah dia menerima si murid untuk Allah, bukan untuk dirinya atau alasan lainnya. Selalu menasihati muridnya, mengawasi muridnya dengan pandangan kasih. Lemah lembut kepada muridnya saat sang murid tidak mampu menyelesaikan riyadhah. Dia juga harus mendidik si murid bagaikan anak sendiri dan orang tua penuh dengan kasih dan kelemahlembutan dalam mendidik anaknya. Oleh karena itu, dia selalu memberikan yang paling mudah kepada si murid dan tidak membebaninya dengan sesuatu yang tidak mampu dilakukannya. Dan setelah sang murid bersumpah untuk bertobat dan selalu taat kepada Allah baru sang syaikh memberikan yang lebih berat kepadanya. Sesungguhnya bai’at bersumber dari hadits Rasulullah SAW ketika beliau mengambil bai’at para sahabatnya.

Kemudian dia harus mentalqin si murid dengan zikir lengkap dengan silsilahnya. Sesungguhnya Ali ra. bertanya kepada Rasulullah SAW, "Wahai Rasulullah, jalan manakah yang terdekat untuk sampai kepada Allah, paling mudah bagi hambanya dan paling afdhal di sisi-Nya. Rasulullah berkata, "Ali, hendaknya jangan putus berzikir (mengingat) kepada Allah dalam khalwat (kontemplasinya)". Kemudian, Ali ra. kembali berkata, "Hanya demikiankah fadhilah zikir, sedangkan semua orang berzikir". Rasulullah berkata, "Tidak hanya itu wahai Ali, kiamat tidak akan terjadi di muka bumi ini selama masih ada orang yang mengucapkan 'Allah', 'Allah'. "Bagaimana aku berzikir?" tanya Ali. Rasulullah bersabda, "Dengarkan apa yang aku ucapkan. Aku akan mengucapkannya sebanyak tiga kali dan aku akan mendengarkan engkau mengulanginya sebanyak tiga kali pula". Lalu, Rasulullah berkata, “Laa ilaaha illallah” sebanyak tiga kali dengan mata terpejam dan suara keras. Ucapan tersebut di ulang oleh Ali dengan cara yang sama seperti yang Rasulullah lakukan. Inilah asal talqin kalimat Laa ilaaha Illallah. Semoga Allah memberikan taufiknya kepada kita dengan kalimat tersebut.

Syaikh Abdul Qadir berkata, ”Kalimat tauhid akan sulit hadir pada seorang individu yang belum di talqin dengan zikir bersilsilah kepada Rasullullah oleh mursyidnya saat menghadapi sakaratul maut”.

Karena itulah Syaikh Abdul Qadir selalu mengulang-ulang syair yang berbunyi: Wahai yang enak diulang dan diucapkan (kalimat tauhid) jangan engkau lupakan aku saat perpisahan (maut).

Kesimpulannya beliau adalah seorang ‘ulama besar. Apabila sekarang ini banyak kaum muslimin menyanjung-nyanjungnya dan mencintainya, maka itu adalah suatu kewajaran. Bahkan suatu keharusan. Akan tetapi kalau meninggi-ninggikan derajat beliau di atas Rasulullah shollallahu’alaihi wasalam, maka hal ini merupakan kekeliruan yang fatal. Karena Rasulullah shollallahu ‘alaihi wasalam adalah rasul yang paling mulia diantara para nabi dan rasul. Derajatnya tidak akan terkalahkan disisi Allah oleh manusia manapun. Adapun sebagian kaum muslimin yang menjadikan Syeikh Abdul Qadir Al Jailani sebagai wasilah ( perantara ) dalam do’a mereka, berkeyakinan bahwa do’a seseorang tidak akan dikabulkan oleh Allah, kecuali dengan perantaranya. Ini juga merupakan kesesatan. Menjadikan orang yang meninggal sebagai perantara, maka tidak ada syari’atnya dan ini diharamkan. Apalagi kalau ada orang yang berdo’a kepada beliau. Ini adalah sebuah kesyirikan besar. Sebab do’a merupakan salah satu bentuk ibadah yang tidak diberikan kepada selain Allah. Allah melarang mahluknya berdo’a kepada selain Allah. "Dan sesungguhnya mesjid-mesjid itu adalah kepunyaan Allah. Maka janganlah kamu menyembah seseorang pun di dalamnya disamping (menyembah ) Allah. ( QS. Al-Jin : 18 )"

Jadi sudah menjadi keharusan bagi setiap muslim untuk memperlakukan para ‘ulama dengan sebaik mungkin, namun tetap dalam batas-batas yang telah ditetapkan syari’ah. Akhirnya mudah-mudahan Allah senantiasa memberikan petunjuk kepada kita sehingga tidak tersesat dalam kehidupan yang penuh dengan fitnah ini.

Pada tahun 521 H/1127 M, dia mengajar dan berfatwa dalam semua madzhab pada masyarakat sampai dikenal masyarakat luas. Selama 25 tahun Abdul Qadir Jaelani menghabiskan waktunya sebagai pengembara sufi di Padang Pasir Iraq dan akhirnya dikenal oleh dunia sebagai tokoh sufi besar dunia Islam. Selain itu dia memimpin madrasah dan ribath di Baghdad yang didirikan sejak 521 H sampai wafatnya di tahun 561 H. Madrasah itu tetap bertahan dengan dipimpin anaknya Abdul Wahab (552-593 H/1151-1196 M), diteruskan anaknya Abdul Salam (611 H/1214 M). Juga dipimpin anak kedua Abdul Qadir Jaelani, Abdul Razaq (528-603 H/1134-1206 M), sampai hancurnya Baghdad pada tahun 656 H/1258 M.

Syeikh Abdul Qadir Jaelani juga dikenal sebagai pendiri sekaligus penyebar salah satu tarekat terbesar didunia bernama Tarekat Qodiriyah.

Dikutip dari : http://id.wikipedia.org

Ibnu Taimiyyah

2009-10-16T00:25:00.000-07:00

Abu al-Abbas Taqi al-Din Ahmad ibn Abd al-Salaam ibn Abdullah ibn Taymiya al-Harrani (Bahasa Arab: أبو عباس تقي الدين أحمد بن عبد السلام بن عبد الله ابن تيمية الحراني) (lahir: 22 Januari 1263 (10 Rabiul Awwal 661 H) – wafat: 1328 (20 Dzulhijjah 728 H) ), adalah seorang pemikir dan ulama Islam dari Harran, Turki.

Ibnu Taymiyyah berpendapat bahwa tiga generasi awal Islam, yaitu Rasulullah Muhammad SAW dan Sahabat Nabi, kemudian Tabi'un, yaitu generasi yang mengenal langsung para Sahabat Nabi, dan Tabi'it al-Tabi'un, yaitu generasi yang mengenal langsung para Tabi'un adalah contoh yang terbaik untuk kehidupan Islam.

Ia berasal dari keluarga religius. Ayahnya Syihabuddin bin Taymiyyah. Seorang Syaikh, hakim, khatib. Kakeknya Majduddin Abul Birkan Abdussalam bin Abdullah bin Taymiyyah Al-Harrani Seorang Ulama yang menguasai fiqih, ahli hadits, tafsir, ilmu ushul dan penghafal Al Qur'an (hafidz).

Ibnu Taymiyyah lahir di zaman ketika Baghdad merupakan pusat kekuasaan dan budaya Islam pada masa Dinasti Abbasiyah. Ketika berusia enam tahun (tahun 1268), Ibnu Taymiyyah dibawa ayahnya ke Damaskus disebabkan serbuan tentara Mongol atas Irak.

Semenjak kecil sudah nampak tanda-tanda kecerdasan pada diri beliau. Begitu tiba di Damsyik beliau segera menghafalkan Al-Qur’an dan mencari berbagai cabang ilmu pada para ulama, huffazh dan ahli-ahli hadits negeri itu. Kecerdasan serta kekuatan otaknya membuat para tokoh ulama tersebut tercengang. Ketika umur beliau belum mencapai belasan tahun, beliau sudah menguasai ilmu Ushuluddin dan sudah mengalami bidang-bidang tafsir, hadits dan bahasa Arab. Pada unsur-unsur itu, beliau telah mengkaji musnad Imam Ahmad sampai beberapa kali, kemudian kitabu-Sittah dan Mu’jam At-Thabarani Al-Kabir.

Suatu kali, ketika beliau masih kanak-kanak pernah ada seorang ulama besar dari Halab (suatu kota lain di Syria sekarang, pen.) yang sengaja datang ke Damasyiq, khusus untuk melihat si bocah bernama Ibnu Taimiyah yang kecerdasannya menjadi buah bibir. Setelah bertemu, ia memberikan tes dengan cara menyampaikan belasan matan hadits sekaligus. Ternyata Ibnu Taimiyah mampu menghafalkannya secara cepat dan tepat. Begitu pula ketika disampaikan kepadanya beberapa sanad Perkembangan dan Hasrat keilmuan ==

Semenjak kecil sudah nampak tanda-tanda kecerdasan pada diri beliau. Begitu tiba di Damsyik beliau segera menghafalkan Al-Qur’an dan mencari berbagai cabang ilmu pada para ulama, huffazh dan ahli-ahli hadits negeri itu. Kecerdasan serta kekuatan otaknya membuat para tokoh ulama tersebut tercengang. Ketika umur beliau belum mencapai belasan tahun, beliau sudah menguasai ilmu Ushuluddin dan sudah mengalami bidang-bidang tafsir, hadits dan bahasa Arab. Pada unsur-unsur itu, beliau telah mengkaji musnad Imam Ahmad sampai beberapa kali, kemudian kitabu-Sittah dan Mu’jam At-Thabarani Al-Kabir.

Suatu kali, ketika beliau masih kanak-kanak pernah ada seorang ulama besar dari Halab (suatu kota lain di Syria sekarang, pen.) yang sengaja datang ke Damasyiq, khusus untuk melihat si bocah bernama Ibnu Taimiyah yang kecerdasannya menjadi buah bibir. Setelah bertemu, ia memberikan tes dengan cara menyampaikan belasan matan hadits sekaligus. Ternyata Ibnu Taimiyah mampu menghafalkannya secara cepat dan tepat. Begitu pula ketika disampaikan kepadanya beberapa sanad, beliaupun dengan tepat pula mampu mengucapkan ulang dan menghafalnya. Hingga ulama tersebut berkata: “Jika anak ini hidup, niscaya ia kelak mempunyai kedudukan besar, sebab belum pernah ada seorang bocah seperti dia.

Sejak kecil beliau hidup dan dibesarkan di tengah-tengah para ulama, mempunyai kesempatan untuk mereguk sepuas-puasnya taman bacaan berupa kitab-kitab yang bermanfaat. Ia infakkan seluruh waktunya untuk belajar dan belajar, menggali ilmu terutama kitabullah dan sunah Rasul-Nya shallallahu’alaihi wa sallam. , beliaupun dengan tepat pula mampu mengucapkan ulang dan menghafalnya. Hingga ulama tersebut berkata: “Jika anak ini hidup, niscaya ia kelak mempunyai kedudukan besar, sebab belum pernah ada seorang bocah seperti dia.

Sejak kecil beliau hidup dan dibesarkan di tengah-tengah para ulama, mempunyai kesempatan untuk mereguk sepuas-puasnya taman bacaan berupa kitab-kitab yang bermanfaat. Ia infakkan seluruh waktunya untuk belajar dan belajar, menggali ilmu terutama kitabullah dan sunah Rasul-Nya shallallahu’alaihi wa sallam.

Beliau adalah orang yang keras pendiriannya dan teguh berpijak pada garis-garis yang telah ditentukan Allah, mengikuti segala perintah-Nya dan menjauhi segala larangan-Nya. Ia pernah berkata: ”Jika dibenakku sedang berfikir suatu masalah, sedangkan hal itu merupakan masalah yang muskil bagiku, maka aku akan beristighfar seribu kali atau lebih atau kurang. Sampai dadaku menjadi lapang dan masalah itu terpecahkan. Hal itu aku lakukan baik di pasar, di masjid atau di madrasah. Semuanya tidak menghalangiku untuk berdzikir dan beristighfar hingga terpenuhi cita-citaku.”

Di Damaskus ia belajar pada banyak guru, dan memperoleh berbagai macam ilmu diantaranya ilmu hitung (matematika), khat (ilmu tulis menulis Arab), nahwu, ushul fiqih . Dan satu hal ia dikaruniai kemampuan mudah hafal dan sukar lupa. Hingga dalam usia muda, ia telah hafal Al-Qur'an. Kemampuan beliau dalam menuntut ilmu mulai terlihat pada usia 17 tahun. Dan usia 19, ia telah memberi fatwa dalam masalah masalah keagamaan.

Ibnu Taymiyyah amat menguasai ilmu rijalul hadits (perawi hadits) yang berguna dalam menelusuri Hadits dari periwayat atau pembawanya dan Fununul hadits (macam-macam hadits) baik yang lemah, cacat atau shahih. Ia memahami semua hadits yang termuat dalam Kutubus Sittah dan Al-Musnad. Dalam mengemukakan ayat-ayat sebagai hujjah atau dalil, ia memiliki kehebatan yang luar biasa, sehingga mampu mengemukakan kesalahan dan kelemahan para mufassir atau ahli tafsir. Tiap malam ia menulis tafsir, fiqh, ilmu 'ushul sambil mengomentari para filusuf . Sehari semalam ia mampu menulis empat buah kurrosah (buku kecil) yang memuat berbagai pendapatnya dalam bidang syari'ah. Ibnul Wardi menuturkan dalam Tarikh Ibnul Wardi bahwa karangan beliau mencapai lima ratus judul. Karya-karya beliau yang terkenal adalah Majmu' Fatawa yang berisi masalah fatwa fatwa dalam agama Islam

Beliau wafatnya di dalam penjara Qal`ah Dimasyq disaksikan oleh salah seorang muridnya Ibnul Qayyim.

Beliau berada di penjara ini selama dua tahun tiga bulan dan beberapa hari, mengalami sakit dua puluh hari lebih.

Jenazah beliau dishalatkan di masjid Jami`Bani Umayah sesudah shalat Zhuhur dihadiri para pejabat pemerintah, ulama, tentara serta para penduduk.

Beliau wafat pada tanggal 20 DzulHijjah th. 728 H, dan dikuburkan pada waktu Ashar di samping kuburan saudaranya Syaikh Jamal Al-Islam Syarafuddin.

Al-Allamah As-Syaikh Al-Karamy Al-Hambali dalam Kitabnya Al-Kawakib AD-Darary yang disusun kasus mengenai manaqib (pujian terhadap jasa-jasa) Ibnu Taimiyah, berkata: “Banyak sekali imam-imam Islam yang memberikan pujian kepada (Ibnu Taimiyah) ini. Diantaranya: Al-Hafizh Al-Mizzy, Ibnu Daqiq Al-Ied, Abu Hayyan An-Nahwy, Al-Hafizh Ibnu Sayyid An-Nas, Al-Hafizh Az-Zamlakany, Al-Hafidh Adz-Dzahabi dan para imam ulama lain.

Al-Hafizh Al-Mizzy mengatakan: “Aku belum pernah melihat orang seperti Ibnu Taimiyah ….. dan belum pernah kulihat ada orang yang lebih berilmu terhadap kitabullah dan sunnah Rasulullah shallahu’alaihi wa sallam serta lebih ittiba’ dibandingkan beliau.”

Al-Qadhi Abu Al-Fath bin Daqiq Al-Ied mengatakan: “Setelah aku berkumpul dengannya, kulihat beliau adalah seseorang yang semua ilmu ada di depan matanya, kapan saja beliau menginginkannya, beliau tinggal mengambilnya, terserah beliau. Dan aku pernah berkata kepadanya: “Aku tidak pernah menyangka akan tercipta manasia seperti anda.”

Al-Qadli Ibnu Al-Hariry mengatakan: “Kalau Ibnu Taimiyah bukah Syaikhul Islam, lalu siapa dia ini ?” Syaikh Ahli nahwu, Abu Hayyan An-Nahwi, setelah beliau berkumpul dengan Ibnu Taimiyah berkata: “Belum pernah sepasang mataku melihat orang seperti dia …..” Kemudian melalui bait-bait syairnya, beliau banyak memberikan pujian kepadanya.

Penguasaan Ibnu Taimiyah dalam beberapa ilmu sangat sempurna, yakni dalam tafsir, aqidah, hadits, fiqh, bahasa arab dan berbagai cabang ilmu pengetahuan Islam lainnya, hingga beliau melampaui kemampuan para ulama zamannya. Al-‘Allamah Kamaluddin bin Az-Zamlakany (wafat th. 727 H) pernah berkata: “Apakah ia ditanya tentang suatu bidang ilmu, maka siapa pun yang mendengar atau melihat (jawabannya) akan menyangka bahwa dia seolah-olah hanya membidangi ilmu itu, orang pun akan yakin bahwa tidak ada seorangpun yang bisa menandinginya”. Para Fuqaha dari berbagai kalangan, jika duduk bersamanya pasti mereka akan mengambil pelajaran bermanfaat bagi kelengkapan madzhab-madzhab mereka yang sebelumnya belum pernah diketahui. Belum pernah terjadi, ia bisa dipatahkan hujahnya. Ia tidak pernah berkata tentang suatu cabang ilmu, baik ilmu syariat atau ilmu lain, melainkan dari masing-masing ahli ilmu itu pasti terhenyak. Ia mempunyai goresan tinta indah, ungkapan-ungkapan, susunan, pembagian kata dan penjelasannya sangat bagus dalam penyusunan buku-buku.”

Imam Adz-Dzahabi rahimahullah (wafat th. 748 H) juga berkata: “Dia adalah lambang kecerdasan dan kecepatan memahami, paling hebat pemahamannya terhadap Al-Kitab was-Sunnah serta perbedaan pendapat, dan lautan dalil naqli. Pada zamannya, beliau adalah satu-satunya baik dalam hal ilmu, zuhud, keberanian, kemurahan, amar ma’ruf, nahi mungkar, dan banyaknya buku-buku yang disusun dan amat menguasai hadits dan fiqh.

Pada umurnya yang ke tujuh belas beliau sudah siap mengajar dan berfatwa, amat menonjol dalam bidang tafsir, ilmu ushul dan semua ilmu-ilmu lain, baik pokok-pokoknya maupun cabang-cabangnya, detailnya dan ketelitiannya. Pada sisi lain Adz-Dzahabi mengatakan: “Dia mempunyai pengetahuan yang sempurna mengenai rijal (mata rantai sanad), Al-Jarhu wat Ta’dil, Thabaqah-Thabaqah sanad, pengetahuan ilmu-ilmu hadits antara shahih dan dhaif, hafal matan-matan hadits yang menyendiri padanya ….. Maka tidak seorangpun pada waktu itu yang bisa menyamai atau mendekati tingkatannya ….. Adz-Dzahabi berkata lagi, bahwa: “Setiap hadits yang tidak diketahui oleh Ibnu Taimiyah, maka itu bukanlah hadist.

Demikian antara lain beberapa pujian ulama terhadap beliau.

dikutip dari : http://id.wikipedia.org

Imam Al-Ghazali

2009-10-16T00:21:00.000-07:00

Imam Al Ghazali, sebuah nama yang tidak asing di telinga kaum muslimin. Tokoh terkemuka dalam kancah filsafat dan tasawuf. Memiliki pengaruh dan pemikiran yang telah menyebar ke seantero dunia Islam. Ironisnya sejarah dan perjalanan hidupnya masih terasa asing. Kebanyakan kaum muslimin belum mengerti. Berikut adalah sebagian sisi kehidupannya. Sehingga setiap kaum muslimin yang mengikutinya, hendaknya mengambil hikmah dari sejarah hidup beliau.

Nama, Nasab dan Kelahiran Beliau

Beliau bernama Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Ahmad Ath Thusi, Abu Hamid Al Ghazali (Lihat Adz Dzahabi, Siyar A’lam Nubala’ 19/323 dan As Subki, Thabaqat Asy Syafi’iyah 6/191). Para ulama nasab berselisih dalam penyandaran nama Imam Al Ghazali. Sebagian mengatakan, bahwa penyandaran nama beliau kepada daerah Ghazalah di Thusi, tempat kelahiran beliau. Ini dikuatkan oleh Al Fayumi dalam Al Mishbah Al Munir. Penisbatan pendapat ini kepada salah seorang keturunan Al Ghazali. Yaitu Majdudin Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Muhyiddin Muhamad bin Abi Thahir Syarwan Syah bin Abul Fadhl bin Ubaidillah anaknya Situ Al Mana bintu Abu Hamid Al Ghazali yang mengatakan, bahwa telah salah orang yang menyandarkan nama kakek kami tersebut dengan ditasydid (Al Ghazzali).

Sebagian lagi mengatakan penyandaran nama beliau kepada pencaharian dan keahlian keluarganya yaitu menenun. Sehingga nisbatnya ditasydid (Al Ghazzali). Demikian pendapat Ibnul Atsir. Dan dinyatakan Imam Nawawi, “Tasydid dalam Al Ghazzali adalah yang benar.” Bahkan Ibnu Assam’ani mengingkari penyandaran nama yang pertama dan berkata, “Saya telah bertanya kepada penduduk Thusi tentang daerah Al Ghazalah, dan mereka mengingkari keberadaannya.” Ada yang berpendapat Al Ghazali adalah penyandaran nama kepada Ghazalah anak perempuan Ka’ab Al Akhbar, ini pendapat Al Khafaji.

Yang dijadikan sandaran para ahli nasab mutaakhirin adalah pendapat Ibnul Atsir dengan tasydid. Yaitu penyandaran nama kepada pekerjaan dan keahlian bapak dan kakeknya (Diringkas dari penjelasan pentahqiq kitab Thabaqat Asy Syafi’iyah dalam catatan kakinya 6/192-192). Dilahirkan di kota Thusi tahun 450 H dan memiliki seorang saudara yang bernama Ahmad (Lihat Adz Dzahabi, Siyar A’lam Nubala’ 19/326 dan As Subki, Thabaqat Asy Syafi’iyah 6/193 dan 194).

Kehidupan dan Perjalanannya Menuntut Ilmu

Ayah beliau adalah seorang pengrajin kain shuf (yang dibuat dari kulit domba) dan menjualnya di kota Thusi. Menjelang wafat dia mewasiatkan pemeliharaan kedua anaknya kepada temannya dari kalangan orang yang baik. Dia berpesan, “Sungguh saya menyesal tidak belajar khat (tulis menulis Arab) dan saya ingin memperbaiki apa yang telah saya alami pada kedua anak saya ini. Maka saya mohon engkau mengajarinya, dan harta yang saya tinggalkan boleh dihabiskan untuk keduanya.”

Setelah meninggal, maka temannya tersebut mengajari keduanya ilmu, hingga habislah harta peninggalan yang sedikit tersebut. Kemudian dia meminta maaf tidak dapat melanjutkan wasiat orang tuanya dengan harta benda yang dimilikinya. Dia berkata, “Ketahuilah oleh kalian berdua, saya telah membelanjakan untuk kalian dari harta kalian. Saya seorang fakir dan miskin yang tidak memiliki harta. Saya menganjurkan kalian berdua untuk masuk ke madrasah seolah-olah sebagai penuntut ilmu. Sehingga memperoleh makanan yang dapat membantu kalian berdua.”

Lalu keduanya melaksanakan anjuran tersebut. Inilah yang menjadi sebab kebahagiaan dan ketinggian mereka. Demikianlah diceritakan oleh Al Ghazali, hingga beliau berkata, “Kami menuntut ilmu bukan karena Allah ta’ala , akan tetapi ilmu enggan kecuali hanya karena Allah ta’ala.” (Dinukil dari Thabaqat Asy Syafi’iyah 6/193-194).

Beliau pun bercerita, bahwa ayahnya seorang fakir yang shalih. Tidak memakan kecuali hasil pekerjaannya dari kerajinan membuat pakaian kulit. Beliau berkeliling mengujungi ahli fikih dan bermajelis dengan mereka, serta memberikan nafkah semampunya. Apabila mendengar perkataan mereka (ahli fikih), beliau menangis dan berdoa memohon diberi anak yang faqih. Apabila hadir di majelis ceramah nasihat, beliau menangis dan memohon kepada Allah ta’ala untuk diberikan anak yang ahli dalam ceramah nasihat.

Kiranya Allah mengabulkan kedua doa beliau tersebut. Imam Al Ghazali menjadi seorang yang faqih dan saudaranya (Ahmad) menjadi seorang yang ahli dalam memberi ceramah nasihat (Dinukil dari Thabaqat Asy Syafi’iyah 6/194).

Imam Al Ghazali memulai belajar di kala masih kecil. Mempelajari fikih dari Syaikh Ahmad bin Muhammad Ar Radzakani di kota Thusi. Kemudian berangkat ke Jurjan untuk mengambil ilmu dari Imam Abu Nashr Al Isma’ili dan menulis buku At Ta’liqat. Kemudian pulang ke Thusi (Lihat kisah selengkapnya dalam Thabaqat Asy Syafi’iyah 6/195).

Beliau mendatangi kota Naisabur dan berguru kepada Imam Haramain Al Juwaini dengan penuh kesungguhan. Sehingga berhasil menguasai dengan sangat baik fikih mazhab Syafi’i dan fikih khilaf, ilmu perdebatan, ushul, manthiq, hikmah dan filsafat. Beliau pun memahami perkataan para ahli ilmu tersebut dan membantah orang yang menyelisihinya. Menyusun tulisan yang membuat kagum guru beliau, yaitu Al Juwaini (Lihat Adz Dzahabi, Siyar A’lam Nubala’ 19/323 dan As Subki, Thabaqat Asy Syafi’iyah 6/191).

Setelah Imam Haramain meninggal, berangkatlah Imam Ghazali ke perkemahan Wazir Nidzamul Malik. Karena majelisnya tempat berkumpul para ahli ilmu, sehingga beliau menantang debat kepada para ulama dan mengalahkan mereka. Kemudian Nidzamul Malik mengangkatnya menjadi pengajar di madrasahnya di Baghdad dan memerintahkannya untuk pindah ke sana. Maka pada tahun 484 H beliau berangkat ke Baghdad dan mengajar di Madrasah An Nidzamiyah dalam usia tiga puluhan tahun. Disinilah beliau berkembang dan menjadi terkenal. Mencapai kedudukan yang sangat tinggi.

Pengaruh Filsafat Dalam Dirinya

Pengaruh filsafat dalam diri beliau begitu kentalnya. Beliau menyusun buku yang berisi celaan terhadap filsafat, seperti kitab At Tahafut yang membongkar kejelekan filsafat. Akan tetapi beliau menyetujui mereka dalam beberapa hal yang disangkanya benar. Hanya saja kehebatan beliau ini tidak didasari dengan ilmu atsar dan keahlian dalam hadits-hadits Nabi yang dapat menghancurkan filsafat. Beliau juga gemar meneliti kitab Ikhwanush Shafa dan kitab-kitab Ibnu Sina. Oleh karena itu, Syaikhul Islam Ibnu Taimiyah berkata, “Al Ghazali dalam perkataannya sangat dipengaruhi filsafat dari karya-karya Ibnu Sina dalam kitab Asy Syifa’, Risalah Ikhwanish Shafa dan karya Abu Hayan At Tauhidi.” (Majmu’ Fatawa 6/54).

Hal ini jelas terlihat dalam kitabnya Ihya’ Ulumuddin. Sehingga Syaikhul Islam Ibnu Taimiyah berkata, “Perkataannya di Ihya Ulumuddin pada umumnya baik. Akan tetapi di dalamnya terdapat isi yang merusak, berupa filsafat, ilmu kalam, cerita bohong sufiyah dan hadits-hadits palsu.” (Majmu’ Fatawa 6/54).

Demikianlah Imam Ghazali dengan kejeniusan dan kepakarannya dalam fikih, tasawuf dan ushul, tetapi sangat sedikit pengetahuannya tentang ilmu hadits dan sunah Rasulullah shallallahu ‘alaihi wa sallam yang seharusnya menjadi pengarah dan penentu kebenaran. Akibatnya beliau menyukai filsafat dan masuk ke dalamnya dengan meneliti dan membedah karya-karya Ibnu Sina dan yang sejenisnya, walaupun beliau memiliki bantahan terhadapnya. Membuat beliau semakin jauh dari ajaran Islam yang hakiki.

Adz Dzahabi berkata, “Orang ini (Al Ghazali) menulis kitab dalam mencela filsafat, yaitu kitab At Tahafut. Dia membongkar kejelekan mereka, akan tetapi dalam beberapa hal menyetujuinya, dengan prasangka hal itu benar dan sesuai dengan agama. Beliau tidaklah memiliki ilmu tentang atsar dan beliau bukanlah pakar dalam hadits-hadits Rasulullah shallallahu ‘alaihi wa sallam yang dapat mengarahkan akal. Beliau senang membedah dan meneliti kitab Ikhwanush Shafa. Kitab ini merupakan penyakit berbahaya dan racun yang mematikan. Kalaulah Abu Hamid bukan seorang yang jenius dan orang yang mukhlis, niscaya dia telah binasa.” (Siyar A’lam Nubala 19/328).

Syaikhul Islam Ibnu Taimiyah berkata, “Abu Hamid condong kepada filsafat. Menampakkannya dalam bentuk tasawuf dan dengan ibarat Islami (ungkapan syar’i). Oleh karena itu para ulama muslimin membantahnya. Hingga murid terdekatnya, (yaitu) Abu Bakar Ibnul Arabi mengatakan, “Guru kami Abu Hamid masuk ke perut filsafat, kemudian ingin keluar dan tidak mampu.” (Majmu’ Fatawa 4/164).

Polemik Kejiwaan Imam Ghazali

Kedudukan dan ketinggian jabatan beliau ini tidak membuatnya congkak dan cinta dunia. Bahkan dalam jiwanya berkecamuk polemik (perang batin) yang membuatnya senang menekuni ilmu-ilmu kezuhudan. Sehingga menolak jabatan tinggi dan kembali kepada ibadah, ikhlas dan perbaikan jiwa. Pada bulan Dzul Qai’dah tahun 488 H beliau berhaji dan mengangkat saudaranya yang bernama Ahmad sebagai penggantinya.

Pada tahun 489 H beliau masuk kota Damaskus dan tinggal beberapa hari. Kemudian menziarahi Baitul Maqdis beberapa lama, dan kembali ke Damaskus beri’tikaf di menara barat masjid Jami’ Damaskus. Beliau banyak duduk di pojok tempat Syaikh Nashr bin Ibrahim Al Maqdisi di masjid Jami’ Umawi (yang sekarang dinamai Al Ghazaliyah). Tinggal di sana dan menulis kitab Ihya Ulumuddin, Al Arba’in, Al Qisthas dan kitab Mahakkun Nadzar. Melatih jiwa dan mengenakan pakaian para ahli ibadah. Beliau tinggal di Syam sekitar 10 tahun.

Ibnu Asakir berkata, “Abu Hamid rahimahullah berhaji dan tinggal di Syam sekitar 10 tahun. Beliau menulis dan bermujahadah dan tinggal di menara barat masjid Jami’ Al Umawi. Mendengarkan kitab Shahih Bukhari dari Abu Sahl Muhammad bin Ubaidilah Al Hafshi.” (Dinukil oleh Adz Dzahabi dalam Siyar A’lam Nubala 6/34).

Disampaikan juga oleh Ibnu Khallakan dengan perkataannya, “An Nidzam (Nidzam Mulk) mengutusnya untuk menjadi pengajar di madrasahnya di Baghdad tahun 484 H. Beliau tinggalkan jabatannya pada tahun 488 H. Lalu menjadi orang yang zuhud, berhaji dan tinggal menetap di Damaskus beberapa lama. Kemudian pindah ke Baitul Maqdis, lalu ke Mesir dan tinggal beberapa lama di Iskandariyah. Kemudian kembali ke Thusi.” (Dinukil oleh Adz Dzahabi dalam Siyar A’lam Nubala 6/34).

Ketika Wazir Fakhrul Mulk menjadi penguasa Khurasan, beliau dipanggil hadir dan diminta tinggal di Naisabur. Sampai akhirnya beliau datang ke Naisabur dan mengajar di madrasah An Nidzamiyah beberapa saat. Setelah beberapa tahun, pulang ke negerinya dengan menekuni ilmu dan menjaga waktunya untuk beribadah. Beliau mendirikan satu madrasah di samping rumahnya dan asrama untuk orang-orang shufi. Beliau habiskan sisa waktunya dengan mengkhatam Al Qur’an, berkumpul dengan ahli ibadah, mengajar para penuntut ilmu dan melakukan shalat dan puasa serta ibadah lainnya sampai meninggal dunia.

Masa Akhir Kehidupannya

Akhir kehidupan beliau dihabiskan dengan kembali mempelajari hadits dan berkumpul dengan ahlinya. Berkata Imam Adz Dzahabi, “Pada akhir kehidupannya, beliau tekun menuntut ilmu hadits dan berkumpul dengan ahlinya serta menelaah shahihain (Shahih Bukhari dan Muslim). Seandainya beliau berumur panjang, niscaya dapat menguasai semuanya dalam waktu singkat. Beliau belum sempat meriwayatkan hadits dan tidak memiliki keturunan kecuali beberapa orang putri.”

Abul Faraj Ibnul Jauzi menyampaikan kisah meninggalnya beliau dalam kitab Ats Tsabat Indal Mamat, menukil cerita Ahmad (saudaranya); Pada subuh hari Senin, saudaraku Abu Hamid berwudhu dan shalat, lalu berkata, “Bawa kemari kain kafan saya.” Lalu beliau mengambil dan menciumnya serta meletakkannya di kedua matanya, dan berkata, “Saya patuh dan taat untuk menemui Malaikat Maut.” Kemudian beliau meluruskan kakinya dan menghadap kiblat. Beliau meninggal sebelum langit menguning (menjelang pagi hari). (Dinukil oleh Adz Dzahabi dalam Siyar A’lam Nubala 6/34). Beliau wafat di kota Thusi, pada hari Senin tanggal 14 Jumada Akhir tahun 505 H dan dikuburkan di pekuburan Ath Thabaran (Thabaqat Asy Syafi’iyah 6/201).

dikutip dari : http://muslim.or.id

Imam Bukhari

2009-10-16T00:12:00.000-07:00

Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ismail bin Ibrahim bin al-Mughirah bin Bardizbah al-Ju'fi al-Bukhari atau lebih dikenal Imam Bukhari adalah ahli hadits yang termasyhur diantara para ahli hadits sejak dulu hingga kini bersama dengan Imam Muslim, Abu Dawud, Tirmidzi, An-Nasai dan Ibnu Majah bahkan dalam kitab-kitab Fiqih dan Hadits, hadits-hadits beliau memiliki derajat yang tinggi. Sebagian menyebutnya dengan julukan Amirul Mukminin fil Hadits (Pemimpin kaum mukmin dalam hal Ilmu Hadits). Dalam bidang ini, hampir semua ulama di dunia merujuk kepadanya.

Beliau diberi nama Muhammad oleh ayah beliau, Ismail bin Ibrahim. Yang sering menggunakan nama asli beliau ini adalah Imam Turmudzi dalam komentarnya setelah meriwayatkan hadits dalam Sunan Turmudzi. Sedangkan kun`yah beliau adalah Abu Abdullah. Karena lahir di Bukhara, Uzbekistan, Asia Tengah; beliau dikenal sebagai al-Bukhari. Dengan demikian nama lengkap beliau adalah Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ismail bin Ibrahim bin al-Mughirah bin Bardizbah al-Ju'fi al-Bukhari. Ia lahir pada tanggal 13 Syawal 194 H (21 Juli 810 M). Tak lama setelah lahir, beliau kehilangan penglihatannya.

Bukhari dididik dalam keluarga ulama yang taat beragama. Dalam kitab ats-Tsiqat, Ibnu Hibban menulis bahwa ayahnya dikenal sebagai orang yang wara' dalam arti berhati hati terhadap hal hal yang bersifat syubhat (ragu-ragu) hukumnya terlebih lebih terhadap hal yang haram. Ayahnya adalah seorang ulama bermadzhab Maliki dan merupakan murid dari Imam Malik, seorang ulama besar dan ahli fikih. Ayahnya wafat ketika Bukhari masih kecil.

Bukhari berguru kepada Syekh Ad-Dakhili, ulama ahli hadits yang masyhur di Bukhara. pada usia 16 tahun bersama keluarganya, ia mengunjungi kota suci terutama Mekkah dan Madinah, dimana dikedua kota suci itu dia mengikuti kuliah para guru besar hadits. Pada usia 18 tahun dia menerbitkan kitab pertama Kazaya Shahabah wa Tabi'in, hafal kitab-kitab hadits karya Mubarak dan Waki bin Jarrah bin Malik. Bersama gurunya Syekh Ishaq, menghimpun hadits-hadits shahih dalam satu kitab, dimana dari satu juta hadits yang diriwayatkan 80.000 perawi disaring menjadi 7275 hadits.

Bukhari memiliki daya hafal tinggi sebagaimana yang diakui kakaknya, Rasyid bin Ismail. Sosok beliau kurus, tidak tinggi, tidak pendek, kulit agak kecoklatan, ramah dermawan dan banyak menyumbangkan hartanya untuk pendidikan.

Untuk mengumpulkan dan menyeleksi hadits shahih, Bukhari menghabiskan waktu selama 16 tahun untuk mengunjungi berbagai kota guna menemui para perawi hadits, mengumpulkan dan menyeleksi haditsnya. Diantara kota-kota yang disinggahinya antara lain Bashrah, Mesir, Hijaz (Mekkah, Madinah), Kufah, Baghdad sampai ke Asia Barat. Di Baghdad, Bukhari sering bertemu dan berdiskusi dengan ulama besar Imam Ahmad bin Hanbali. Dari sejumlah kota-kota itu, ia bertemu dengan 80.000 perawi. Dari merekalah beliau mengumpulkan dan menghafal satu juta hadits.

Namun tidak semua hadits yang ia hafal kemudian diriwayatkan, melainkan terlebih dahulu diseleksi dengan seleksi yang sangat ketat diantaranya apakah sanad (riwayat) dari hadits tersebut bersambung dan apakah perawi (periwayat/pembawa) hadits itu terpercaya dan tsiqqah (kuat). Menurut Ibnu Hajar Al Asqalani, akhirnya Bukhari menuliskan sebanyak 9082 hadis dalam karya monumentalnya Al Jami'al-Shahil yang dikenal sebagai Shahih Bukhari.

Banyak para ahli hadits yang berguru kepadanya seperti Syekh Abu Zahrah, Abu Hatim Tirmidzi, Muhammad Ibn Nasr dan Imam Muslim.

Karya Imam Bukhari antara lain:

* Al-Jami' ash-Shahih yang dikenal sebagai Shahih Bukhari
* Al-Adab al-Mufrad[1][2]
* Adh-Dhu'afa ash-Shaghir[3]
* At-Tarikh ash-Shaghir
* At-Tarikh al-Ausath[4]
* At-Tarikh al-Kabir[5]
* At-Tafsir al-Kabir
* Al-Musnad al-Kabir
* Kazaya Shahabah wa Tabi'in
* Kitab al-Ilal
* Raf'ul Yadain fi ash-Shalah
* Birr al-Walidain
* Kitab ad-Du'afa
* Asami ash-Shahabah
* Al-Hibah
* Khalq Af'al al-Ibad[6]
* Al-Kuna
* Al-Qira'ah Khalf al-Imam

Diantara guru-guru beliau dalam memperoleh hadits dan ilmu hadits antara lain Ali ibn Al Madini, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Yahya bin Ma'in, Muhammad ibn Yusuf Al Faryabi, Maki ibn Ibrahim Al Bakhi, Muhammad ibn Yusuf al Baykandi dan ibn Rahwahih. Selain itu ada 289 ahli hadits yang haditsnya dikutip dalam kitab Shahih-nya

Dalam meneliti dan menyeleksi hadits dan diskusi dengan para perawi. Imam Bukhari sangat sopan. Kritik-kritik yang ia lontarkan kepada para perawi juga cukup halus namun tajam. Kepada Perawi yang sudah jelas kebohongannya ia berkata, "perlu dipertimbangkan, para ulama meninggalkannya atau para ulama berdiam diri dari hal itu" sementara kepada para perawi yang haditsnya tidak jelas ia menyatakan "Haditsnya diingkari". Bahkan banyak meninggalkan perawi yang diragukan kejujurannya. Dia berkata "Saya meninggalkan 10.000 hadits yang diriwayatkan oleh perawi yang perlu dipertimbangkan dan meninggalkan hadits-hadits dengan jumlah yang sama atau lebih, yang diriwayatan oleh perawi yang dalam pandanganku perlu dipertimbangkan".

Banyak para ulama atau perawi yang ditemui sehingga Bukhari banyak mencatat jati diri dan sikap mereka secara teliti dan akurat. Untuk mendapatkan keterangan yang lengkap mengenai sebuah hadits, mencek keakuratan sebuah hadits ia berkali-kali mendatangi ulama atau perawi meskipun berada di kota-kota atau negeri yang jauh seperti Baghdad, Kufah, Mesir, Syam, Hijaz seperti yang dikatakan beliau "Saya telah mengunjungi Syam, Mesir, dan Jazirah masing-masing dua kali; ke Basrah empat kali, menetap di Hijaz selama enam tahun, dan tidak dapat dihitung berapa kali saya mengunjungi Kufah dan Baghdad untuk menemui ulama-ulama ahli hadits."

Di sela-sela kesibukannya sebagai ulama, pakar hadits, ia juga dikenal sebagai ulama dan ahli fiqih, bahkan tidak lupa dengan kegiatan kegiatan olahraga dan rekreatif seperti belajar memanah sampai mahir. Bahkan menurut suatu riwayat, Imam Bukhari tidak pernah luput memanah kecuali dua kali.
[sunting] Di Naisabur, Bukhara, Samarkand, dan Wafatnya Beliau

Kebesaran akan keilmuan beliau diakui dan dikagumi sampai ke seantero dunia Islam. Di Naisabur, tempat asal imam Muslim seorang Ahli hadits yang juga murid Imam Bukhari dan yang menerbitkan kitab Shahih Muslim, kedatangan beliau pada tahun 250 H disambut meriah, juga oleh guru Imam Bukhari Sendiri Muhammad bin Yahya Az-Zihli. Dalam kitab Shahih Muslim, Imam Muslim menulis. "Ketika Imam Bukhari datang ke Naisabur, saya tidak melihat kepala daerah, para ulama dan warga kota memberikan sambutan luar biasa seperti yang mereka berikan kepada Imam Bukhari". Namun kemudian terjadi fitnah yang menyebabkan Imam Bukhari meninggalkan kota itu dan pergi ke kampung halamannya di Bukhara.

Seperti halnya di Naisabur, di Bukhara beliau disambut secara meriah. Namun ternyata fitnah kembali melanda, kali ini datang dari Gubernur Bukhara sendiri, Khalid bin Ahmad Az-Zihli yang akhirnya Gubernur ini menerima hukuman dari Sultan Uzbekistan Ibn Tahir.

Tak lama kemudian, atas permintaan warga Samarkand sebuah negeri tetangga Uzbekistan, Imam Bukhari akhirnya menetap di Samarkand,. Tiba di Khartand, sebuah desa kecil sebelum Samarkand, ia singgah untuk mengunjungi beberapa familinya. Namun disana beliau jatuh sakit selama beberapa hari. Dan Akhirnya meninggal pada tanggal 31 Agustus 870 M (256 H) pada malam Idul Fitri dalam usia 62 tahun kurang 13 hari. Ia dimakamkan selepas Shalat Dzuhur pada Hari Raya Idul Fitri.

Imam Hambali

2009-10-16T00:10:00.001-07:00

Imam Hambali

Imam Hambali bernama Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Hambal, lahir di Baghdad pada tahun 780-855 M. Beliau dibesarkan oleh ibunya lantaran sang ayah meninggal di masa mudanya, pada usia 16 tahun, keinginannya yang besar membuatnya belajar Al Qur’an dan ilmu ilmu agama lainya kepada ulama ulama yang ada di Baghdad, dan setiap kali mendengar ada ulama terkenal di suatu tempat, beliau rela menempuh perjalanan jauh dan waktu yang cukup lama untuk menimba ilmu dari sang ulama, beliau mengunjungi para ulama terkenal di berbagai tempat, seperti Bashrah, Syam, Kufa, Yaman, Mekkah dan Madinah, beberapa gurunya antara lain : Hammad bin Khalid, Ismail bin Aliyah, Muzaffar bin Mudrik, Walin bin Muslim dan Musa bin thariq. Kecintaanya terhadap ilmulah yang membuat beliau tidak menikah di usia muda, nanti di usia 40 tahun barulah beliau menikah.

Kepandaian Imam hambali dalam ilmu hadis tak diragukan lagi, menurut putra sulungnya Abdullah bin Ahmad bahwa Imam hambali telah hafal 700.000 hadis di luar kepala. Hadis sebanyak itu kemudian diseleksinya secara ketat dan ditulis kembali dalam kitabnya Al Musnad berjumlah 40.000 hadis berdasarkan susunan nama nama sahabat yang meriwayatkan. Dengan kemampuan dan kepandaiannya, mengundang banyak tokoh ulama yang berguru kepadanya yang melahirkan banyak ulama dan pewaris hadis terkenal semisal Imam bukhari, Imam Muslim dan Imam Abu Daud.

Menurut Ibnu Al Qayyim, ada lima landasan pokok yang dijadikan dasar penetapan hukum dan fatwa dalam mazhab hambali yaitu :
1. Al Quran dan Sunnah, jika ada nashnya dalam Al Quran dan hadis maka tidak berpaling pada sumber lainnya.
2. Fatwa Sahabat yang terkenal dan tak ada yang menentangnya.
3. jika para sahabt berbeda pendapat, maka beliau akan memilih pendapat yang dinilainya lebih sesuai dan mendekati Al Quran dan Sunnah, namun jika perbedaan pendapat tersebut tidak ada kesesuaiannya dengan Al Quran maupun Sunnah maka beliau mengambil sikap diam atau meriwayatkan kedua duanya.
4. Mengambil hadis Mursal (sanadnya tidak disebutkan perawinya) dan hadis Dhaif (lemah), dalam hal ini hadis dhaif lebih didahulukan dari pada Qiyas.
5. Qiyas, digunakan bila tidak ditemukan dasar hukumnya dari keempat sumber di atas.

Hasil karaya Imam hambali yang paling terkenal adalah Musnad Ahmad bin Hambal dan buku buku karangan lainnya, seperti,Tafsir Al Quran, Annasikh Walmansukh, AlTarikh, Jawab Al quran, Taat Arrasul dan Al Wara’.

Malik bin Anas ( Imam Maliki)

2009-10-16T00:06:00.000-07:00

Malik bin Anas (lengkapnya: Malik bin Anas bin Malik bin `Amr, al-Imam, Abu `Abd Allah al-Humyari al-Asbahi al-Madani), (Bahasa Arab: مالك بن أنس), lahir di (Madinah pada tahun 714 (93 H), dan meninggal pada tahun 800 (179 H)). Ia adalah pakar ilmu fikih dan hadits, serta pendiri Mazhab Maliki.

Nama lengkapnya adalah Malik bin Anas Abi Amir al Ashbahi, dengan julukan Abu Abdillah.

Ia lahir pada tahun 93 H, Ia menyusun kitab Al Muwaththa', dan dalam penyusunannya ia menghabiskan waktu 40 tahun, selama waktu itu, ia menunjukan kepada 70 ahli fiqh Madinah.

Kitab tersebut menghimpun 100.000 hadits, dan yang meriwayatkan Al Muwaththa’ lebih dari seribu orang, karena itu naskahnya berbeda beda dan seluruhnya berjumlah 30 naskah, tetapi yang terkenal hanya 20 buah. Dan yang paling masyur adalah riwayat dari Yahya bin Yahyah al Laitsi al Andalusi al Mashmudi.

Sejumlah ‘Ulama berpendapat bahwa sumber sumber hadits itu ada tujuh, yaitu Al Kutub as Sittah ditambah Al Muwaththa’. Ada pula ulama yang menetapkan Sunan ad Darimi sebagai ganti Al Muwaththa’. Ketika melukiskan kitab besar ini, Ibn Hazm berkata,” Al Muwaththa’ adalah kitab tentang fiqh dan hadits, aku belum mnegetahui bandingannya.

Hadits-hadits yang terdapat dalam Al Muwaththa’ tidak semuanya Musnad, ada yang Mursal, mu’dlal dan munqathi. Sebagian ‘Ulama menghitungnya berjumlah 600 hadits musnad, 222 hadits mursal, 613 hadits mauquf, 285 perkataan tabi’in, disamping itu ada 61 hadits tanpa penyandara, hanya dikatakan telah sampai kepadaku” dan “ dari orang kepercayaan”, tetapi hadits hadits tersebut bersanad dari jalur jalur lain yang bukan jalur dari Imam Malik sendiri, karena itu Ibn Abdil Bar an Namiri menentang penyusunan kitab yang berusaha memuttashilkan hadits hadits mursal , munqathi’ dan mu’dhal yang terdapat dalam Al Muwaththa’ Malik.

Imam Malik menerima hadits dari 900 orang (guru), 300 dari golongan Tabi’in dan 600 dari tabi’in tabi’in, ia meriwayatkan hadits bersumber dari Nu’main al Mujmir, Zaib bin Aslam, Nafi’, Syarik bin Abdullah, az Zuhry, Abi az Ziyad, Sa’id al Maqburi dan Humaid ath Thawil, muridnya yang paling akhir adalah Hudzafah as Sahmi al Anshari.

Adapun yang meriwayatkan darinya adalah banyak sekali diantaranya ada yang lebih tua darinya seperti az Zuhry dan Yahya bin Sa’id. Ada yang sebaya seperti al Auza’i., Ats Tsauri, Sufyan bin Uyainah, Al Laits bin Sa’ad, Ibnu Juraij dan Syu’bah bin Hajjaj. Adapula yang belajar darinya seperti Asy Safi’i, Ibnu Wahb, Ibnu Mahdi, al Qaththan dan Abi Ishaq.

An Nasa’i berkata,” Tidak ada yang saya lihat orang yang pintar, mulia dan jujur, terpercaya periwayatan haditsnya melebihi Malik, kami tidak tahu dia ada meriwayatkan hadits dari rawi matruk, kecuali Abdul Karim”.

(Ket: Abdul Karim bin Abi al Mukharif al Basri yang menetap di Makkah, karena tidak senegeri dengan Malik, keadaanya tidak banyak diketahui, Malik hanya sedikit mentahrijkan haditsnya tentang keutamaan amal atau menambah pada matan).

Sedangkan Ibnu Hayyan berkata,” Malik adalah orang yang pertama menyeleksi para tokoh ahli fiqh di Madinah, dengan fiqh, agama dan keutamaan ibadah”.

Malik bin Anas menyusun kompilasi hadits dan ucapan para sahabat dalam buku yang terkenal hingga kini, Al Muwatta.

Di antara guru beliau adalah Nafi’ bin Abi Nu’aim, Nafi’ al Muqbiri, Na’imul Majmar, Az Zuhri, Amir bin Abdullah bin Az Zubair, Ibnul Munkadir, Abdullah bin Dinar, dan lain-lain.

Di antara murid beliau adalah Ibnul Mubarak, Al Qoththon, Ibnu Mahdi, Ibnu Wahb, Ibnu Qosim, Al Qo’nabi, Abdullah bin Yusuf, Sa’id bin Manshur, Yahya bin Yahya al Andalusi, Yahya bin Bakir, Qutaibah Abu Mush’ab, Al Auza’i, Sufyan Ats Tsaury, Sufyan bin Uyainah, Imam Syafi’i, Abu Hudzafah as Sahmi, Az Aubairi, dan lain-lain.

Ia wafat pada tahun 179 H

dikuptip dari: http://id.wikipedia.org

Umar bin Abdul Aziz

2009-10-16T00:02:00.000-07:00

Saat itu tengah malam di kota Madinah. Kebanyakan warga kota sudah tidur. Umar bin Khatab r.a. berjalan menyelusuri jalan-jalan di kota. Dia coba untuk tidak melewatkan satupun dari pengamatannya. Menjelang dini hari, pria ini lelah dan memutuskan untuk beristirahat. Tanpa sengaja, terdengarlah olehnya percakapan antara ibu dan anak perempuannya dari dalam rumah dekat dia beristirahat.

“Nak, campurkanlah susu yang engkau perah tadi dengan air,” kata sang ibu.
“Jangan ibu. Amirul mukminin sudah membuat peraturan untuk tidak menjual susu yang dicampur air,” jawab sang anak.
“Tapi banyak orang melakukannya Nak, campurlah sedikit saja. Tho insyaallah Amirul Mukminin tidak mengetahuinya,” kata sang ibu mencoba meyakinkan anaknya.
“Ibu, Amirul Mukminin mungkin tidak mengetahuinya. Tapi, Rab dari Amirul Mukminin pasti melihatnya,” tegas si anak menolak.

Mendengar percakapan ini, berurailah air mata pria ini. Karena subuh menjelang, bersegeralah dia ke masjid untuk memimpin shalat Subuh. Sesampai di rumah, dipanggilah anaknya untuk menghadap dan berkata, “Wahai Ashim putra Umar bin Khattab. Sesungguhnya tadi malam saya mendengar percakapan istimewa. Pergilah kamu ke rumah si anu dan selidikilah keluarganya.”

Ashim bin Umar bin Khattab melaksanakan perintah ayahndanya yang tak lain memang Umar bin Khattab, Khalifah kedua yang bergelar Amirul Mukminin. Sekembalinya dari penyelidikan, dia menghadap ayahnya dan mendengar ayahnya berkata,
“Pergi dan temuilah mereka. Lamarlah anak gadisnya itu untuk menjadi isterimu. Aku lihat insyaallah ia akan memberi berkah kepadamu dan anak keturunanmu. Mudah-mudahan pula ia dapat memberi keturunan yang akan menjadi pemimpin bangsa.”

Begitulah, menikahlah Ashim bin Umar bin Khattab dengan anak gadis tersebut. Dari pernikahan ini, Umar bin Khattab dikaruniai cucu perempuan bernama Laila, yang nantinya dikenal dengan Ummi Ashim. Suatu malam setelah itu, Umar bermimpi. Dalam mimpinya dia melihat seorang pemuda dari keturunannya, bernama Umar, dengan kening yang cacat karena luka. Pemuda ini memimpin umat Islam seperti dia memimpin umat Islam. Mimpi ini diceritakan hanya kepada keluarganya saja. Saat Umar meninggal, cerita ini tetap terpendam di antara keluarganya.

Pada saat kakeknya Amirul Mukminin Umar bin Khattab terbunuh pada tahun 644 Masehi, Ummi Ashim turut menghadiri pemakamannya. Kemudian Ummi Ashim menjalani 12 tahun kekhalifahan Ustman bin Affan sampai terbunuh pada tahun 656 Maserhi. Setelah itu, Ummi Ashim juga ikut menyaksikan 5 tahun kekhalifahan Imam Ali bin Abi Thalib r.a. Hingga akhirnya Muawiyah berkuasa dan mendirikan Dinasti Umayyah.

Pergantian sistem kekhalifahan ke sistem dinasti ini sangat berdampak pada Negara Islam saat itu. Penguasa mulai memerintah dalam kemewahan. Setelah penguasa yang mewah, penyakit-penyakit yang lain mulai tumbuh dan bersemi. Ambisi kekuasaan dan kekuatan, penumpukan kekayaan, dan korupsi mewarnai sejarah Islam dalam Dinasti Umayyah. Negara bertambah luas, penduduk bertambah banyak, ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi berkembang, tapi orang-orang semakin merindukan ukhuwah persaudaraan, keadilan dan kesahajaan Ali, Utsman, Umar, dan Abu Bakar. Status kaya-miskin mulai terlihat jelas, posisi pejabat-rakyat mulai terasa. Kafir dhimni pun mengeluhkan resahnya, “Sesungguhnya kami merindukan Umar, dia datang ke sini menanyakan kabar dan bisnis kami. Dia tanyakan juga apakah ada hukum-hukumnya yang merugikan kami. Kami ikhlas membayar pajak berapapun yang dia minta. Sekarang, kami membayar pajak karena takut.”

Kemudian Muawiyah membaiat anaknya Yazid bin Muawiyah menjadi penggantinya. Tindakan Muawiyah ini adalah awal malapetaka dinasti Umayyah yang dia buat sendiri. Yazid bukanlah seorang amir yang semestinya. Kezaliman dilegalkan dan tindakannya yang paling disesali adalah membunuh sahabat-sahabat Rasul serta cucunya Husein bin Ali bin Abi Thalib. Yazid mati menggenaskan tiga hari setelah dia membunuh Husein.

Akan tetapi, putra Yazid, Muawiyah bin Yazid, adalah seorang ahli ibadah. Dia menyadari kesalahan kakeknya dan ayahnya dan menolak menggantikan ayahnya. Dia memilih pergi dan singgasana dinasti Umayah kosong. Terjadilah rebutan kekuasaan dikalangan bani Umayah. Abdullah bin Zubeir, seorang sahabat utama Rasulullah dicalonkan untuk menjadi amirul mukminin. Namun, kelicikan mengantarkan Marwan bin Hakam, bani Umayah dari keluarga Hakam, untuk mengisi posisi kosong itu dan meneruskan sistem dinasti. Marwan bin Hakam memimpin selama sepuluh tahun lebih dan lebih zalim daripada Yazid.

Kelahiran Umar bin Abdul Aziz

Saat itu, Ummi Ashim menikah dengan Abdul Aziz bin Marwan. Abdul Aziz adalah Gubernur Mesir di era khalifah Abdul Malik bin Marwan (685 – 705 M) yang merupakan kakaknya. Abdul Mallik bin Marwan adalah seorang shaleh, ahli fiqh dan tafsir, serta raja yang baik terlepas dari permasalahan ummat yang diwarisi oleh ayahnya (Marwan bin Hakam) saat itu.

Dari perkawinan itu, lahirlah Umar bin Abdul Aziz. Beliau dilahirkan di Halawan, kampung yang terletak di Mesir, pada tahun 61 Hijrah. Umar kecil hidup dalam lingkungan istana dan mewah. Saat masih kecil Umar mendapat kecelakaan. Tanpa sengaja seekor kuda jantan menendangnya sehingga keningnya robek hingga tulang keningnya terlihat. Semua orang panik dan menangis, kecuali Abdul Aziz seketika tersentak dan tersenyum. Seraya mengobati luka Umar kecil, dia berujar,

“Bergembiralah engkau wahai Ummi Ashim. Mimpi Umar bin Khattab insyaallah terwujud, dialah anak dari keturunan Umayyah yang akan memperbaiki bangsa ini.“

Umar bin Abdul Aziz menuntut ilmu sejak beliau masih kecil. Beliau sentiasa berada di dalam majlis ilmu bersama-sama dengan orang-orang yang pakar di dalam bidang fikih dan juga ulama-ulama. Beliau telah menghafaz al-Quran sejak masih kecil. Merantau ke Madinah untuk menimba ilmu pengetahuan. Beliau telah berguru dengan beberapa tokoh terkemuka spt Imam Malik b. Anas, Urwah b. Zubair, Abdullah b. Jaafar, Yusuf b. Abdullah dan sebagainya. Kemudian beliau melanjutkan pelajaran dengan beberapa tokoh terkenal di Mesir.

Semasa Khalifah Walid bin Abdul Malik memerintah, beliau memegang jawatan gabernur Madinah/Hijaz dan berjaya mentadbir wilayah itu dengan baik. Ketika itu usianya lebih kurang 28 tahun. Pada zaman Sulaiman bin Abdul Malik memerintah, beliau dilantik menjadi menteri kanan dan penasihat utama khalifah. Pada masa itu usianya 33 tahun.

Umar bin Abdul Aziz mempersunting Fatimah binti Abdul Malik bin Marwan sebagai istrinya. Fatimah binti Abdul Malik bin Marwan adalah putri dari khalifah Abdul Malik bin Marwan. Demikian juga, keempat saudaranya pun semua khalifah, yaitu Al Walid Sulaiman, Al Yazid, dan Hisyam. Ketika Fatimah dipinang untuk Umar bin Abdul Aziz, pada waktu itu Umar masih layaknya orang kebanyakan bukan sebagai calon pemangku jabatan khalifah.

Pengangkatan Umar bin Abdul Aziz sebagai Khalifah

Atas wasiat yang dikeluarkan oleh khalifah Sulaiman bin Abdul Malik, Umar bin Abdul Aziz diangkat menjadi khalifah pada usianya 37 tahun. Beliau dilantik menjadi Khalifah selepas kematian Sulaiman bin Abdul Malik tetapi beliau tidak suka kepada pelantikan tersebut. Lalu beliau memerintahkan supaya memanggil orang ramai untuk mendirikan sembahyang. Selepas itu orang ramai mula berpusu-pusu pergi ke masjid. Apabila mereka semua telah berkumpul, beliau bangun menyampaikan ucapan. Lantas beliau mengucapkan puji-pujian kepada Allah dan berselawat kepada Nabi s.a.w kemudian beliau berkata:

“Wahai sekalian umat manusia! Aku telah diuji untuk memegang tugas ini tanpa meminta pandangan daripada aku terlebih dahulu dan bukan juga permintaan daripada aku serta tidak dibincangkan bersama dengan umat Islam. Sekarang aku membatalkan baiah yang kamu berikan kepada aku dan pilihlah seorang Khalifah yang kamu reda”.

Tiba-tiba orang ramai serentak berkata:

“Kami telah memilih kamu wahai Amirul Mukminin dan kami juga reda kepada kamu. Oleh yang demikian perintahlah kami dengan kebaikan dan keberkatan”.

Lalu beliau berpesan kepada orang ramai supaya bertakwa, zuhud kepada kekayaan dunia dan mendorong mereka supaya cintakan akhirat kemudian beliau berkata pula kepada mereka: “Wahai sekalian umat manusia! Sesiapa yang taat kepada Allah, dia wajib ditaati dan sesiapa yang tidak taat kepada Allah, dia tidak wajib ditaati oleh sesiapapun. Wahai sekalian umat manusia! Taatlah kamu kepada aku selagi aku taat kepada Allah di dalam memimpin kamu dan sekiranya aku tidak taat kepada Allah, janganlah sesiapa mentaati aku”. Setelah itu beliau turun dari mimbar.

Umar rahimahullah pernah menghimpunkan sekumpulan ahli fekah dan ulama kemudian beliau berkata kepada mereka: “Aku menghimpunkan kamu semua untuk bertanya pendapat tentang perkara yang berkaitan dengan barangan yang diambil secara zalim yang masih berada bersama-sama dengan keluarga aku?” Lalu mereka menjawab: “Wahai Amirul Mukminin! perkara tersebut berlaku bukan pada masa pemerintahan kamu dan dosa kezaliman tersebut ditanggung oleh orang yang mencerobohnya.” Walau bagaimanapun Umar tidak puas hati dengan jawapan tersebut sebaliknya beliau menerima pendapat daripada kumpulan yang lain termasuk anak beliau sendiri Abdul Malik yang berkata kepada beliau: “Aku berpendapat bahawa ia hendaklah dikembalikan kepada pemilik asalnya selagi kamu mengetahuinya. Sekiranya kamu tidak mengembalikannya, kamu akan menanggung dosa bersama-sama dengan orang yang mengambilnya secara zalim.” Umar berpuas hati mendengar pendapat tersebut lalu beliau mengembalikan semula barangan yang diambil secara zalim kepada pemilik asalnya.

Sesudah Umar bin Abdul Aziz diangkat menjadi khalifah dan Amirul Mukminin, Umar langsung mengajukan pilihan kepada Fatimah, isteri tercinta.

Umar berkata kepadanya, “Isteriku sayang, aku harap engkau memilih satu di antar dua.”
Fatimah bertanya kepada suaminya, “Memilih apa, kakanda?”
Umar bin Abdul Azz menerangkan, “Memilih antara perhiasan emas berlian yang kau pakai dengan Umar bin Abdul Aziz yang mendampingimu.”
Kata Fatimah, “Demi Allah, Aku tidak memilih pendamping lebih mulia daripadamu, ya Amirul Mukminin. Inilah emas permata dan seluruh perhiasanku.”

Kemudian Khalifah Umar bin Abdul Aziz menerima semua perhiasan itu dan menyerahkannya ke Baitulmal, kas Negara kaum muslimin. Sementara Umar bin Abdul Aziz dan keluarganya makan makanan rakyat biasa, yaitu roti dan garam sedikit.

Setelah menjadi khalifah, beliau mengubah beberapa perkara yang lebih mirip kepada sistem feodal. Di antara perubahan awal yang dilakukannya ialah :
1) menghapuskan cacian terhadap Saidina Ali b Abu Thalib dan keluarganya yang disebut dalam khutbah-khutbah Jumaat dan digantikan dengan beberapa potongan ayat suci al-Quran
2) merampas kembali harta-harta yang disalahgunakan oleh keluarga Khalifah dan mengembalikannya ke Baitulmal
3) memecat pegawai-pegawai yang tidak cekap, menyalahgunakan kuasa dan pegawai yang tidak layak yang dilantik atas pengaruh keluarga Khalifah
4) menghapuskan pegawai pribadi bagi Khalifah sebagaimana yang diamalkan oleh Khalifah terdahulu. Ini membolehkan beliau bebas bergaul dengan rakyat jelata tanpa sekatan tidak seperti khalifah dahulu yang mempunyai pengawal peribadi dan askar-askar yang mengawal istana yang menyebabkan rakyat sukar berjumpa.

Selain daripada itu, beliau amat menitilberatkan tentang kebajikan rakyat miskin di mana beliau juga telah menaikkan gaji buruh sehingga ada yang menyamai gaji pegawai kerajaan.

Beliau juga amat menitikberatkan penghayatan agama di kalangan rakyatnya yang telah lalai dengan kemewahan dunia. Khalifah umar telah memerintahkan umatnya mendirikan solat secara berjammah dan masjid-masjid dijadikan tempat untuk mempelajari hukum Allah sebegaimana yang berlaku di zaman Rasulullah SAW dan para Khulafa’ Ar-Rasyidin. Baginda turut mengarahkan Muhammad b Abu Bakar Al-Hazni di Mekah agar mengumpul dan menyusun hadith-hadith Raulullah SAW. Beliau juga meriwayatkan hadis dari sejumlah tabiin lain dan banyak pula ulama hadis yang meriwayatkan hadis daripada beliau.

Dalam bidang ilmu pula, beliau telah mengarahkan cendikawan Islam supaya menterjemahkan buku-buku kedoktoran dan pelbagai bidang ilmu dari bahasa Greek, Latin dan Siryani ke dalam bahasa Arab supaya senang dipelajari oleh umat Islam.

Dalam mengukuhkan lagi dakwah Islamiyah, beliau telah menghantar 10 orang pakar hukum Islam ke Afrika Utara serta menghantar beberapa orang pendakwah kepada raja-raja India, Turki dan Barbar di Afrika Utara untuk mengajak mereka kepada Islam. Di samping itu juga beliau telah menghapuskan bayaran Jizyah yang dikenakan ke atas orang yang bukan Islam dengan harapan ramai yang akan memeluk Islam.

Khalifah Umar bin Abdul Aziz yang terkenal dengan keadilannya telah menjadikan keadilan sebagai keutamaan pemerintahannya. Beliau ingin semua rakyat dilayani dengan adil tidak memandang keturunan dan pangkat supaya keadilan dapat berjalan dengan sempurna. Keadilan yang beliau perjuangan adalah menyamai keadilan di zaman kakeknya, Khalifah Umar Al-Khatab.

Pada masa pemerintahan beliau, kerajaan Umaiyyah semakin kuat tiada pemberontakan dalaman, kurang berlaku penyelewengan, rakyat mendapat layanan yang sewajarnya dan menjadi kaya-raya hinggakan Baitulmal penuh dengan harta zakat kerana tiada lagi orang yang mahu menerima zakat. Rakyat umumnya sudah kaya ataupun sekurang-kurangnya mau berdikari sendiri. Pada zaman pemerintahan Umar bin Abdul Aziz ra, pasukan kaum muslimin sudah mencapai pintu kota Paris di sebelah barat dan negeri Cina di sebelah timur. Pada waktu itu kekausaan pemerintahan di Portugal dan Spanyol berada di bawah kekuasaannya.

Kematian beliau

Beliau wafat pada tahun 101 Hijrah ketika berusia 39 tahun. Beliau memerintah hanya selama 2 tahun 5 bulan saja. Setelah beliau wafat, kekhalifahan digantikan oleh iparnya, Yazid bin Abdul Malik.

Muhammad bin Ali bin Al-Husin rahimahullah berkata tentang beliau: “Kamu telah sedia maklum bahwa setiap kaum mempunyai seorang tokoh yang menonjol dan tokoh yang menonjol dari kalangan Bani Umaiyyah ialah Umar bin Abdul Aziz, beliau akan dibangkitkan di hari kiamat kelak seolah-olah beliau satu umat yang berasingan.”

Terdapat banyak riwayat dan athar para sahabat yang menceritakan tentang keluruhan budinya. Di antaranya ialah :
1) At-Tirmizi meriwayatkan bahwa Umar Al-Khatab telah berkata : “Dari anakku (zuriatku) akan lahir seorang lelaki yang menyerupainya dari segi keberaniannya dan akan memenuhkan dunia dengan keadilan”
2) Dari Zaid bin Aslam bahawa Anas bin Malik telah berkata : “Aku tidak pernah menjadi makmum di belakang imam selepas wafatnya Rasulullah SAW yang mana solat imam tersebut menyamai solat Rasulullah SAW melainkan daripada Umar bin Abdul Aziz dan beliau pada masa itu adalah Gabenor Madinah”
3) Al-Walid bin Muslim menceritakan bahawa seorang lelaki dari Khurasan telah berkata : “Aku telah beberapa kali mendengar suara datang dalam mimpiku yang berbunyi : “Jika seorang yang berani dari Bani Marwan dilantik menjadi Khalifah, maka berilah baiah kepadanya kerana dia adalah pemimpin yang adil”.” Lalu aku menanti-nanti sehinggalah Umar b. Abdul Aziz menjadi Khalifah, akupun mendapatkannya dan memberi baiah kepadanya”.
4) Qais bin Jabir berkata : “Perbandingan Umar b Abdul Aziz di sisi Bani Ummaiyyah seperti orang yang beriman di kalangan keluarga Firaun”
5) Hassan al-Qishab telah berkata :”Aku melihat serigala diternak bersama dengan sekumpulan kambing di zaman Khalifah Umar Ibnu Aziz”
6) Umar b Asid telah berkata :”Demi Allah, Umar Ibnu Aziz tidak meninggal dunia sehingga datang seorang lelaki dengan harta yang bertimbun dan lelaki tersebut berkata kepada orang ramai :”Ambillah hartaku ini sebanyak mana yang kamu mahu”. Tetapi tiada yang mahu menerimanya (kerana semua sudah kaya) dan sesungguhnya Umar telah menjadikan rakyatnya kaya-raya”
7) ‘Atha’ telah berkata : “Umar Abdul Aziz mengumpulkan para fuqaha’ setiap malam. Mereka saling ingat memperingati di antara satu sama lain tentang mati dan hari qiamat, kemudian mereka sama-sama menangis kerana takut kepada azab Allah seolah-olah ada jenayah di antara mereka.”

Husein bin Ali

2009-10-15T23:52:00.000-07:00

Husain bin ‘Alī bin Abī Thālib (Bahasa Arab: حسين بن علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب)‎ (3 Sya‘bān 4 H - 10 Muharram 61 H; 8 Januari 626 - 10 Oktober 680 AD) adalah cucu dari Nabi Muhammad yang merupakan putra dari Fatimah az-Zahra dan Ali bin Abi Thalib. Husain merupakan Imam ketiga bagi kebanyakan sekte Syi'ah, dan Imam kedua bagi yang lain. Ia dihormati oleh Sunni karena ia merupakan Ahlul Bait. Ia juga sangat dihormati kaum Sufi karena menjadi Waliy Mursyid yang ke 2 setelah ayahanda beliau terutama bagi tarekat Qadiriyyah di seluruh dunia dan tarekat Alawiyyah di Hadramaut.

Ia terbunuh sebagai syahid pada Pertempuran Karbala tahun 680 Masehi. Perayaan kesyahidannya disebut sebagai Hari Asyura dan pada hari itu kaum Muslim Syi'ah bersedih.

Kelahiran

Husain dilahirkan tiga tahun setelah Hijrah ke Madinah (626 M), orang tuanya adalah Ali, sepupu Muhammad dan orang kepercayaannya, dan Fatimah, putri Muhammad. Husain adalah cucu kedua Muhammad.

Keturunan

Al-Husain memiliki 4 orang putra dan 2 orang putri, diantaranya adalah:[1]

1. Ali bin Husain al-Akbar
Dijuluki Abu Muhammad
2. Ali bin Husain al-Asghar
Syahid bersama ayahnya pada Pertempuran Karbala. Ibunya bernama Laila binti Abu Murrah bin Urwah bin Mas'ud ats-Tsaqafi
3. Ja'far bin Husain
Ibunya dari suku Quda'ah. Ja'far meninggal pada saat Husain masih hidup
4. Abdullah bin Husain
Syahid saat masih bayi bersama ayahnya.
Putri

1. Sukainah binti Husain
Ibunya bernama Rabab binti Imru' al-Qais bin Adi dari Kalb dari Ma'd. Rabab juga ibut dari Abdullah bin Husain.
2. Fatimah binti Husain
Ibunya bernama Umm Ishaq binti Thalhah bin Ubaidillah dari Taim[1]

Pertempuran Karbala

anggal 10 Muharram 61 H atau tanggal 10 Oktober 680 merupakan hari pertempuran Karbala yang terjadi di Karbala, Iraq sekarang. Pertempuran ini terjadi antara pasukan Bani Hasyim yang dipimpin oleh Husain bin Ali beranggotakan sekitar 70-an orang melawan pasukan Bani Umayyah yang dipimpin oleh Ibnu Ziyad, atas perintah Yazid bin Muawiyah, khalifah Umayyah saat itu.

Pada hari itu hampir semua pasukan Husain bin Ali, termasuk Husain-nya sendiri syahid terbunuh, kecuali pihak perempuan, serta anak Husain yang sakit bernama Ali bin Husain. Kemudian oleh Ibnu Ziyad mereka dibawa menghadap Khalifah di Damaskus, dan kemudian yang selamat dikembalikan ke Madinah.

Imam dan Wali Mursyid

Selain menjadi Imam yang ke-3 dari 12 Imam bagi Mazhab Dua Belas Imam, al-Husain juga menjadi Wali Mursyid yang ke-2 bagi kaum Sufi terutama tarekat Qadiriyyah. Syekh Abdul Qadir Jailani sendiri ayahanda beliau adalah Hasani sedangkan ibunda beliau Husayni. Tapi garis tarekat ini jelas mengikuti keturunan Ali dari Husain hingga Ali Ridha, kemudian pindah keluar ahlul-bait. Tapi mulai dari Syekh Abdul Qadir Jilani, jabatan Wali Mursyid berikutnya hingga saat ini yang telah mencapai generasi ke 40 (di banyak cabang tarekat) umumnya dipegang kembali oleh keturunan Ahlul Bait baik Hasani maupun Husayni.

Imam Syafi'i

2009-10-15T23:19:00.000-07:00

Muhammad bin Idris asy-Syafi`i (bahasa Arab: محمد بن إدريس الشافعي) yang akrab dipanggil Imam Syafi'i (Gaza, Palestina, 150 H / 767 - Fusthat, Mesir 204H / 819M) adalah seorang mufti besar Sunni Islam dan juga pendiri mazhab Syafi'i. Imam Syafi'i juga tergolong kerabat dari Rasulullah, ia termasuk dalam Bani Muththalib, yaitu keturunan dari al-Muththalib, saudara dari Hasyim, yang merupakan kakek Muhammad.

Saat usia 20 tahun, Imam Syafi'i pergi ke Madinah untuk berguru kepada ulama besar saat itu, Imam Malik. Dua tahun kemudian, ia juga pergi ke Irak, untuk berguru pada murid-murid Imam Hanafi di sana.

Imam Syafi`i mempunyai dua dasar berbeda untuk Mazhab Syafi'i. Yang pertama namanya Qaulun Qadim dan Qaulun Jadid.

Kelahiran dan kehidupan keluarga
Kelahiran

Kebanyakan ahli sejarah berpendapat bahwa Imam Syafi'i lahir di Gaza, Palestina, namun diantara pendapat ini terdapat pula yang menyatakan bahwa dia lahir di Asqalan; sebuah kota yang berjarak sekitar tiga farsakh dari Gaza. Menurut para ahli sejarah pula, Imam Syafi'i lahir pada tahun 150 H, yang mana pada tahun ini wafat pula seorang ulama besar Sunni yang bernama Imam Abu Hanifah.
Nasab

Imam Syafi'i merupakan keturunan dari al-Muththalib, jadi dia termasuk ke dalam Bani Muththalib. Nasab Beliau adalah Muhammad bin Idris bin Al-Abbas bin Utsman bin Syafi’ bin As-Sa’ib bin Ubaid bin Abdi Yazid bin Hasyim bin Al-Mutthalib bin Abdulmanaf bin Qushay bin Kilab bin Murrah bin Ka’ab bin Lu’ay bin Ghalib bin Fihr bin Malik bin An-Nadhr bin Kinanah bin Khuzaimah bin Mudrikah bin Ilyas bin Mudhar bin Nizar bin Ma’ad bin Adnan. Nasabnya bertemu dengan Rasulullah di Abdul-Manaf.

Dari nasab tersebut, Al-Mutthalib bin Abdi Manaf, kakek Muhammad bin Idris Asy-Syafi`ie, adalah saudara kandung Hasyim bin Abdi Manaf kakek Nabi Muhammad shallallahu `alaihi wa alihi wasallam .

Kemudian juga saudara kandung Abdul Mutthalib bin Hasyim, kakek Nabi Muhammad shallallahu `alaihi wa alihi wasallam , bernama Syifa’, dinikahi oleh Ubaid bin Abdi Yazid, sehingga melahirkan anak bernama As-Sa’ib, ayahnya Syafi’. Kepada Syafi’ bin As-Sa’ib radliyallahu `anhuma inilah bayi yatim tersebut dinisbahkan nasabnya sehingga terkenal dengan nama Muhammad bin Idris Asy-Syafi`ie Al-Mutthalibi. Dengan demikian nasab yatim ini sangat dekat dengan Nabi Muhammad shallallahu `alaihi wa alihi wasallam .

Bahkan karena Hasyim bin Abdi Manaf, yang kemudian melahirkan Bani Hasyim, adalah saudara kandung dengan Mutthalib bin Abdi manaf, yang melahirkan Bani Mutthalib, maka Rasulullah bersabda:
“ “Hanyalah kami (yakni Bani Hasyim) dengan mereka (yakni Bani Mutthalib) berasal dari satu nasab. Sambil beliau menyilang-nyilangkan jari jemari kedua tangan beliau.” (HR. Abu Nu’aim Al-Asfahani dalam Hilyah nya juz 9 hal. 65 - 66). ”
Masa belajar

Setelah ayah Imam Syafi’i meninggal dan dua tahun kelahirannya, sang ibu membawanya ke Mekah, tanah air nenek moyang. Ia tumbuh besar di sana dalam keadaan yatim. Sejak kecil Syafi’i cepat menghafal syair, pandai bahasa Arab dan sastra sampai-sampai Al Ashma’i berkata,”Saya mentashih syair-syair bani Hudzail dari seorang pemuda dari Quraisy yang disebut Muhammad bin Idris,” Imam Syafi’i adalah imam bahasa Arab.
[sunting] Belajar di Makkah

Di Makkah, Imam Syafi’i berguru fiqh kepada mufti di sana, Muslim bin Khalid Az Zanji sehingga ia mengizinkannya memberi fatwah ketika masih berusia 15 tahun. Demi ia merasakan manisnya ilmu, maka dengan taufiq Allah dan hidayah-Nya, dia mulai senang mempelajari fiqih setelah menjadi tokoh dalam bahasa Arab dan sya’irnya. Remaja yatim ini belajar fiqih dari para Ulama’ fiqih yang ada di Makkah, seperti Muslim bin khalid Az-Zanji yang waktu itu berkedudukan sebagai mufti Makkah.

Kemudian beliau juga belajar dari Dawud bin Abdurrahman Al-Atthar, juga belajar dari pamannya yang bernama Muhammad bin Ali bin Syafi’, dan juga menimba ilmu dari Sufyan bin Uyainah.

Guru yang lainnya dalam fiqih ialah Abdurrahman bin Abi Bakr Al-Mulaiki, Sa’id bin Salim, Fudhail bin Al-Ayyadl dan masih banyak lagi yang lainnya. Dia pun semakin menonjol dalam bidang fiqih hanya dalam beberapa tahun saja duduk di berbagai halaqah ilmu para Ulama’ fiqih sebagaimana tersebut di atas.
[sunting] Belajar di Madinah

Kemudian beliau pergi ke Madinah dan berguru fiqh kepada Imam Malik bin Anas. Ia mengaji kitab Muwattha’ kepada Imam Malik dan menghafalnya dalam 9 malam. Imam Syafi’i meriwayatkan hadis dari Sufyan bin Uyainah, Fudlail bin Iyadl dan pamannya, Muhamad bin Syafi’ dan lain-lain.

Di majelis beliau ini, si anak yatim tersebut menghapal dan memahami dengan cemerlang kitab karya Imam Malik, yaitu Al-Muwattha’ . Kecerdasannya membuat Imam Malik amat mengaguminya. Sementara itu As-Syafi`ie sendiri sangat terkesan dan sangat mengagumi Imam Malik di Al-Madinah dan Imam Sufyan bin Uyainah di Makkah.

Beliau menyatakan kekagumannya setelah menjadi Imam dengan pernyataannya yang terkenal berbunyi: “Seandainya tidak ada Malik bin Anas dan Sufyan bin Uyainah, niscaya akan hilanglah ilmu dari Hijaz.” Juga beliau menyatakan lebih lanjut kekagumannya kepada Imam Malik: “Bila datang Imam Malik di suatu majelis, maka Malik menjadi bintang di majelis itu.” Beliau juga sangat terkesan dengan kitab Al-Muwattha’ Imam Malik sehingga beliau menyatakan: “Tidak ada kitab yang lebih bermanfaat setelah Al-Qur’an, lebih dari kitab Al-Muwattha’ .” Beliau juga menyatakan: “Aku tidak membaca Al-Muwattha’ Malik, kecuali mesti bertambah pemahamanku.”

Dari berbagai pernyataan beliau di atas dapatlah diketahui bahwa guru yang paling beliau kagumi adalah Imam Malik bin Anas, kemudian Imam Sufyan bin Uyainah. Di samping itu, pemuda ini juga duduk menghafal dan memahami ilmu dari para Ulama’ yang ada di Al-Madinah, seperti Ibrahim bin Sa’ad, Isma’il bin Ja’far, Atthaf bin Khalid, Abdul Aziz Ad-Darawardi. Ia banyak pula menghafal ilmu di majelisnya Ibrahim bin Abi Yahya. Tetapi sayang, guru beliau yang disebutkan terakhir ini adalah pendusta dalam meriwayatkan hadits, memiliki pandangan yang sama dengan madzhab Qadariyah yang menolak untuk beriman kepada taqdir dan berbagai kelemahan fatal lainnya. Sehingga ketika pemuda Quraisy ini telah terkenal dengan gelar sebagai Imam Syafi`ie, khususnya di akhir hayat beliau, beliau tidak mau lagi menyebut nama Ibrahim bin Abi Yahya ini dalam berbagai periwayatan ilmu.
Di Yaman

Imam Syafi’i kemudian pergi ke Yaman dan bekerja sebentar di sana. Disebutkanlah sederet Ulama’ Yaman yang didatangi oleh beliau ini seperti: Mutharrif bin Mazin, Hisyam bin Yusuf Al-Qadli dan banyak lagi yang lainnya. Dari Yaman, beliau melanjutkan tour ilmiahnya ke kota Baghdad di Iraq dan di kota ini beliau banyak mengambil ilmu dari Muhammad bin Al-Hasan, seorang ahli fiqih di negeri Iraq. Juga beliau mengambil ilmu dari Isma’il bin Ulaiyyah dan Abdul Wahhab Ats-Tsaqafi dan masih banyak lagi yang lainnya.
Di Baghdad, Irak

Kemudian pergi ke Baghdad (183 dan tahun 195), di sana ia menimba ilmu dari Muhammad bin Hasan. Ia memiliki tukar pikiran yang menjadikan Khalifah Ar Rasyid.
Di Mesir

Imam Syafi’i bertemu dengan Ahmad bin Hanbal di Mekah tahun 187 H dan di Baghdad tahun 195 H. Dari Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal, Imam Syafi’i menimba ilmu fiqhnya, ushul madzhabnya, penjelasan nasikh dan mansukhnya. Di Baghdad, Imam Syafi’i menulis madzhab lamanya (madzhab qodim). Kemudian beliu pindah ke Mesir tahun 200 H dan menuliskan madzhab baru (madzhab jadid). Di sana beliau wafat sebagai syuhadaul ilm di akhir bulan Rajab 204 H.
Karya tulis

Ar-Risalah

Salah satu karangannya adalah “Ar Risalah” buku pertama tentang ushul fiqh dan kitab “Al Umm” yang berisi madzhab fiqhnya yang baru. Imam Syafi’i adalah seorang mujtahid mutlak, imam fiqh, hadis, dan ushul. Ia mampu memadukan fiqh ahli Irak dan fiqh ahli Hijaz. Imam Ahmad berkata tentang Imam Syafi’i,”Beliau adalah orang yang paling faqih dalam Al Quran dan As Sunnah,” “Tidak seorang pun yang pernah memegang pena dan tinta (ilmu) melainkan Allah memberinya di ‘leher’ Syafi’i,”. Thasy Kubri mengatakan di Miftahus sa’adah,”Ulama ahli fiqh, ushul, hadits, bahasa, nahwu, dan disiplin ilmu lainnya sepakat bahwa Syafi’i memiliki sifat amanah (dipercaya), ‘adaalah (kredibilitas agama dan moral), zuhud, wara’, takwa, dermawan, tingkah lakunya yang baik, derajatnya yang tinggi. Orang yang banyak menyebutkan perjalanan hidupnya saja masih kurang lengkap,”
Mazhab Syafi'i

Dasar madzhabnya: Al Quran, Sunnah, Ijma’ dan Qiyas. Beliau juga tidak mengambil Istihsan (menganggap baik suatu masalah) sebagai dasar madzhabnya, menolak maslahah mursalah, perbuatan penduduk Madinah. Imam Syafi’i mengatakan,”Barangsiapa yang melakukan istihsan maka ia telah menciptakan syariat,”. Penduduk Baghdad mengatakan,”Imam Syafi’i adalah nashirussunnah (pembela sunnah),”
[sunting] Al-Hujjah

Kitab “Al Hujjah” yang merupakan madzhab lama diriwayatkan oleh empat imam Irak; Ahmad bin Hanbal, Abu Tsaur, Za’farani, Al Karabisyi dari Imam Syafi’i.
Al-Umm

Sementara kitab “Al Umm” sebagai madzhab yang baru Imam Syafi’i diriwayatkan oleh pengikutnya di Mesir; Al Muzani, Al Buwaithi, Ar Rabi’ Jizii bin Sulaiman. Imam Syafi’i mengatakan tentang madzhabnya,”Jika sebuah hadits shahih bertentangan dengan perkataanku, maka ia (hadis) adalah madzhabku, dan buanglah perkataanku di belakang tembok,”

Malik bin Anas

2009-10-15T23:14:00.000-07:00

Malik bin Anas (lengkapnya: Malik bin Anas bin Malik bin `Amr, al-Imam, Abu `Abd Allah al-Humyari al-Asbahi al-Madani), (Bahasa Arab: مالك بن أنس), lahir di (Madinah pada tahun 714 (93 H), dan meninggal pada tahun 800 (179 H)). Ia adalah pakar ilmu fikih dan hadits, serta pendiri Mazhab Maliki.
Biografi

Nama lengkapnya adalah Malik bin Anas Abi Amir al Ashbahi, dengan julukan Abu Abdillah.

Ia lahir pada tahun 93 H, Ia menyusun kitab Al Muwaththa', dan dalam penyusunannya ia menghabiskan waktu 40 tahun, selama waktu itu, ia menunjukan kepada 70 ahli fiqh Madinah.

Kitab tersebut menghimpun 100.000 hadits, dan yang meriwayatkan Al Muwaththa’ lebih dari seribu orang, karena itu naskahnya berbeda beda dan seluruhnya berjumlah 30 naskah, tetapi yang terkenal hanya 20 buah. Dan yang paling masyur adalah riwayat dari Yahya bin Yahyah al Laitsi al Andalusi al Mashmudi.

Sejumlah ‘Ulama berpendapat bahwa sumber sumber hadits itu ada tujuh, yaitu Al Kutub as Sittah ditambah Al Muwaththa’. Ada pula ulama yang menetapkan Sunan ad Darimi sebagai ganti Al Muwaththa’. Ketika melukiskan kitab besar ini, Ibn Hazm berkata,” Al Muwaththa’ adalah kitab tentang fiqh dan hadits, aku belum mnegetahui bandingannya.

Hadits-hadits yang terdapat dalam Al Muwaththa’ tidak semuanya Musnad, ada yang Mursal, mu’dlal dan munqathi. Sebagian ‘Ulama menghitungnya berjumlah 600 hadits musnad, 222 hadits mursal, 613 hadits mauquf, 285 perkataan tabi’in, disamping itu ada 61 hadits tanpa penyandara, hanya dikatakan telah sampai kepadaku” dan “ dari orang kepercayaan”, tetapi hadits hadits tersebut bersanad dari jalur jalur lain yang bukan jalur dari Imam Malik sendiri, karena itu Ibn Abdil Bar an Namiri menentang penyusunan kitab yang berusaha memuttashilkan hadits hadits mursal , munqathi’ dan mu’dhal yang terdapat dalam Al Muwaththa’ Malik.

Imam Malik menerima hadits dari 900 orang (guru), 300 dari golongan Tabi’in dan 600 dari tabi’in tabi’in, ia meriwayatkan hadits bersumber dari Nu’main al Mujmir, Zaib bin Aslam, Nafi’, Syarik bin Abdullah, az Zuhry, Abi az Ziyad, Sa’id al Maqburi dan Humaid ath Thawil, muridnya yang paling akhir adalah Hudzafah as Sahmi al Anshari.

Adapun yang meriwayatkan darinya adalah banyak sekali diantaranya ada yang lebih tua darinya seperti az Zuhry dan Yahya bin Sa’id. Ada yang sebaya seperti al Auza’i., Ats Tsauri, Sufyan bin Uyainah, Al Laits bin Sa’ad, Ibnu Juraij dan Syu’bah bin Hajjaj. Adapula yang belajar darinya seperti Asy Safi’i, Ibnu Wahb, Ibnu Mahdi, al Qaththan dan Abi Ishaq.

An Nasa’i berkata,” Tidak ada yang saya lihat orang yang pintar, mulia dan jujur, terpercaya periwayatan haditsnya melebihi Malik, kami tidak tahu dia ada meriwayatkan hadits dari rawi matruk, kecuali Abdul Karim”.

(Ket: Abdul Karim bin Abi al Mukharif al Basri yang menetap di Makkah, karena tidak senegeri dengan Malik, keadaanya tidak banyak diketahui, Malik hanya sedikit mentahrijkan haditsnya tentang keutamaan amal atau menambah pada matan).

Sedangkan Ibnu Hayyan berkata,” Malik adalah orang yang pertama menyeleksi para tokoh ahli fiqh di Madinah, dengan fiqh, agama dan keutamaan ibadah”.

Malik bin Anas menyusun kompilasi hadits dan ucapan para sahabat dalam buku yang terkenal hingga kini, Al Muwatta.

Di antara guru beliau adalah Nafi’ bin Abi Nu’aim, Nafi’ al Muqbiri, Na’imul Majmar, Az Zuhri, Amir bin Abdullah bin Az Zubair, Ibnul Munkadir, Abdullah bin Dinar, dan lain-lain.

Di antara murid beliau adalah Ibnul Mubarak, Al Qoththon, Ibnu Mahdi, Ibnu Wahb, Ibnu Qosim, Al Qo’nabi, Abdullah bin Yusuf, Sa’id bin Manshur, Yahya bin Yahya al Andalusi, Yahya bin Bakir, Qutaibah Abu Mush’ab, Al Auza’i, Sufyan Ats Tsaury, Sufyan bin Uyainah, Imam Syafi’i, Abu Hudzafah as Sahmi, Az Aubairi, dan lain-lain.

Ia wafat pada tahun 179 H

sumber: http://id.wikipedia.org

Abu Hnifah

2009-10-15T23:13:00.000-07:00

Imam Abu Hanifah

Imam Abu Hanifah An-Nu’man bin Tsabit al-Kufiy merupakan orang yang faqih di negeri Irak, salah satu imam dari kaum muslimin, pemimpin orang-orang alim, salah seorang yang mulia dari kalangan ulama dan salah satu imam dari empat imam yang memiliki madzhab.

Nasab dan Kelahirannya bin Tsabit bin Zuthi (ada yang mengatakan Zutha) At-Taimi Al-Kufi
Beliau adalah Abu Hanifah An-Nu’man Taimillah bin Tsa’labah. Beliau berasal dari keturunan bangsa persi. Beliau dilahirkan pada tahun 80 H pada masa shigharus shahabah dan para ulama berselisih pendapat tentang tempat kelahiran Abu Hanifah, menurut penuturan anaknya Hamad bin Abu Hadifah bahwa Zuthi berasal dari kota Kabul dan dia terlahir dalam keadaan Islam. Adapula yang mengatakan dari Anbar, yang lainnya mengatakan dari Turmudz dan yang lainnya lagi mengatakan dari Babilonia.

Perkembangannya

Ismail bin Hamad bin Abu Hanifah cucunya menuturkan bahwa dahulu Tsabit ayah Abu Hanifah pergi mengunjungi Ali Bin Abi Thalib, lantas Ali mendoakan keberkahan kepadanya pada dirinya dan keluarganya, sedangkan dia pada waktu itu masih kecil, dan kami berharap Allah subhanahu wa ta’ala mengabulkan doa Ali tersebut untuk kami. Dan Abu Hanifah At-Taimi biasa ikut rombongan pedagang minyak dan kain sutera, bahkan dia punya toko untuk berdagang kain yang berada di rumah Amr bin Harits.

Abu Hanifah itu tinggi badannya sedang, memiliki postur tubuh yang bagus, jelas dalam berbicara, suaranya bagus dan enak didengar, bagus wajahnya, bagus pakaiannya dan selalu memakai minyak wangi, bagus dalam bermajelis, sangat kasih sayang, bagus dalam pergaulan bersama rekan-rekannya, disegani dan tidak membicarakan hal-hal yang tidak berguna.
Beliau disibukkan dengan mencari atsar/hadits dan juga melakukan rihlah untuk mencari hal itu. Dan beliau ahli dalam bidang fiqih, mempunyai kecermatan dalam berpendapat, dan dalam permasalahan-permasalahan yang samar/sulit maka kepada beliau akhir penyelesaiannya.

Beliau sempat bertemu dengan Anas bin Malik tatkala datang ke Kufah dan belajar kepadanya, beliau juga belajar dan meriwayat dari ulama lain seperti Atha’ bin Abi Rabbah yang merupakan syaikh besarnya, Asy-Sya’bi, Adi bin Tsabit, Abdurrahman bin Hurmuj al-A’raj, Amru bin Dinar, Thalhah bin Nafi’, Nafi’ Maula Ibnu Umar, Qotadah bin Di’amah, Qois bin Muslim, Abdullah bin Dinar, Hamad bin Abi Sulaiman guru fiqihnya, Abu Ja’far Al-Baqir, Ibnu Syihab Az-Zuhri, Muhammad bin Munkandar, dan masih banyak lagi. Dan ada yang meriwayatkan bahwa beliau sempat bertemu dengan 7 sahabat.

Beliau pernah bercerita, tatkala pergi ke kota Bashrah, saya optimis kalau ada orang yang bertanya kepadaku tentang sesuatu apapun saya akan menjawabnya, maka tatkala diantara mereka ada yang bertanya kepadaku tentang suatu masalah lantas saya tidak mempunyai jawabannya, maka aku memutuskan untuk tidak berpisah dengan Hamad sampai dia meninggal, maka saya bersamanya selama 10 tahun.

Pada masa pemerintahan Marwan salah seorang raja dari Bani Umayyah di Kufah, beliau didatangi Hubairoh salah satu anak buah raja Marwan meminta Abu Hanifah agar menjadi Qodhi (hakim) di Kufah akan tetapi beliau menolak permintaan tersebut, maka beliau dihukum cambuk sebanyak 110 kali (setiap harinya dicambuk 10 kali), tatkala dia mengetahui keteguhan Abu Hanifah maka dia melepaskannya.

Adapun orang-orang yang belajar kepadanya dan meriwayatkan darinya diantaranya adalah sebagaimana yang disebutkan oleh Syaikh Abul Hajaj di dalam Tahdzibnya berdasarkan abjad diantaranya Ibrahin bin Thahman seorang alim dari Khurasan, Abyadh bin Al-Aghar bin Ash-Shabah, Ishaq al-Azroq, Asar bin Amru Al-Bajali, Ismail bin Yahya Al-Sirafi, Al-Harits bin Nahban, Al-Hasan bin Ziyad, Hafsh binn Abdurrahman al-Qadhi, Hamad bin Abu Hanifah, Hamzah temannya penjual minyak wangi, Dawud Ath-Thai, Sulaiman bin Amr An-Nakhai, Su’aib bin Ishaq, Abdullah ibnul Mubarok, Abdul Aziz bin Khalid at-Turmudzi, Abdul karim bin Muhammad al-Jurjani, Abdullah bin Zubair al-Qurasy, Ali bin Zhibyan al-Qodhi, Ali bin Ashim, Isa bin Yunus, Abu Nu’aim, Al-Fadhl bin Musa, Muhammad bin Bisyr, Muhammad bin Hasan Assaibani, Muhammad bin Abdullah al-Anshari, Muhammad bin Qoshim al-Asadi, Nu’man bin Abdus Salam al-Asbahani, Waki’ bin Al-Jarah, Yahya bin Ayub Al-Mishri, Yazid bin Harun, Abu Syihab Al-Hanath Assamaqondi, Al-Qodhi Abu Yusuf, dan lain-lain.
Penilaian para ulama terhadap Abu Hanifah

Berikut ini beberapa penilaian para ulama tentang Abu Hanifah, diantaranya:
1. Yahya bin Ma’in berkata, “Abu Hanifah adalah orang yang tsiqoh, dia tidak membicarakan hadits kecuali yang dia hafal dan tidak membicarakan apa-apa yang tidak hafal”. Dan dalam waktu yang lain beliau berkata, “Abu Hanifah adalah orang yang tsiqoh di dalam hadits”. Dan dia juga berkata, “Abu hanifah laa ba’sa bih, dia tidak berdusta, orang yang jujur, tidak tertuduh dengan berdusta, …”.
2. Abdullah ibnul Mubarok berkata, “Kalaulah Allah subhanahu wa ta’ala tidak menolong saya melalui Abu Hanifah dan Sufyan Ats-Tsauri maka saya hanya akan seperti orang biasa”. Dan beliau juga berkata, “Abu Hanifah adalah orang yang paling faqih”. Dan beliau juga pernah berkata, “Aku berkata kepada Sufyan Ats-Tsauri, ‘Wahai Abu Abdillah, orang yang paling jauh dari perbuatan ghibah adalah Abu Hanifah, saya tidak pernah mendengar beliau berbuat ghibah meskipun kepada musuhnya’ kemudian beliau menimpali ‘Demi Allah, dia adalah orang yang paling berakal, dia tidak menghilangkan kebaikannya dengan perbuatan ghibah’.” Beliau juga berkata, “Aku dating ke kota Kufah, aku bertanya siapakah orang yang paling wara’ di kota Kufah? Maka mereka penduduk Kufah menjawab Abu Hanifah”. Beliau juga berkata, “Apabila atsar telah diketahui, dan masih membutuhkan pendapat, kemudian imam Malik berpendapat, Sufyan berpendapat dan Abu Hanifah berpendapat maka yang paling bagus pendapatnya adalah Abu Hanifah … dan dia orang yang paling faqih dari ketiganya”.
3. Al-Qodhi Abu Yusuf berkata, “Abu Hanifah berkata, tidak selayaknya bagi seseorang berbicara tentang hadits kecuali apa-apa yang dia hafal sebagaimana dia mendengarnya”. Beliau juga berkata, “Saya tidak melihat seseorang yang lebih tahu tentang tafsir hadits dan tempat-tempat pengambilan fiqih hadits dari Abu Hanifah”.
4. Imam Syafii berkata, “Barangsiapa ingin mutabahir (memiliki ilmu seluas lautan) dalam masalah fiqih hendaklah dia belajar kepada Abu Hanifah”
5. Fudhail bin Iyadh berkata, “Abu Hanifah adalah seorang yang faqih, terkenal dengan wara’-nya, termasuk salah seorang hartawan, sabar dalam belajar dan mengajarkan ilmu, sedikit bicara, menunjukkan kebenaran dengan cara yang baik, menghindari dari harta penguasa”. Qois bin Rabi’ juga mengatakan hal serupa dengan perkataan Fudhail bin Iyadh.
6. Yahya bin Sa’id al-Qothan berkata, “Kami tidak mendustakan Allah swt, tidaklah kami mendengar pendapat yang lebih baik dari pendapat Abu Hanifah, dan sungguh banyak mengambil pendapatnya”.
7. Hafsh bin Ghiyats berkata, “Pendapat Abu Hanifah di dalam masalah fiqih lebih mendalam dari pada syair, dan tidaklah mencelanya melainkan dia itu orang yang jahil tentangnya”.
8. Al-Khuroibi berkata, “Tidaklah orang itu mensela Abu Hanifah melainkan dia itu orang yang pendengki atau orang yang jahil”.
9. Sufyan bin Uyainah berkata, “Semoga Allah merahmati Abu Hanifah karena dia adalah termasuk orang yang menjaga shalatnya (banyak melakukan shalat)”.

Beberapa penilaian negatif yang ditujukan kepada Abu Hanifah
Abu Hanifah selain dia mendapatkan penilaian yang baik dan pujian dari beberapa ulama, juga mendapatkan penilaian negatif dan celaan yang ditujukan kepada beliau, diantaranya :
1. Imam Muslim bin Hajaj berkata, “Abu Hanifah Nu’man bin Tsabit shahibur ro’yi mudhtharib dalam hadits, tidak banyak hadits shahihnya”.
2. Abdul Karim bin Muhammad bin Syu’aib An-Nasai berkata, “Abu Hanifah Nu’man bin Tsabit tidak kuat hafalan haditsnya”.
3. Abdullah ibnul Mubarok berkata, “Abu Hanifah orang yang miskin di dalam hadits”.
4. Sebagian ahlul ilmi memberikan tuduhan bahwa Abu Hanifah adalah murji’ah dalam memahi masalah iman. Yaitu penyataan bahwa iman itu keyakinan yang adal dalam hati dan diucapkan dengan lesan, dan mengeluarkan amal dari hakikat iman.
Dan telah dinukil dari Abu Hanifah bahwasanya amal-amal itu tidak termasuk dari hakekat imam, akan tetapi dia termasuk dari sya’air iman, dan yang berpendapat seperti ini adalah Jumhur Asy’ariyyah, Abu Manshur Al-Maturidi … dan menyelisihi pendapat ini adalah Ahlu Hadits … dan telah dinukil pula dari Abu Hanifah bahwa iman itu adalah pembenaran di dalam hati dan penetapan dengan lesan tidak bertambah dan tidak berkurang. Dan yang dimaksudkan dengan “tidak bertambah dan berkurang” adalah jumlah dan ukurannya itu tidak bertingkat-tingkat, dak hal ini tidak menafikan adanya iman itu bertingkat-tingkat dari segi kaifiyyah, seperti ada yang kuat dan ada yang lemah, ada yang jelas dan yang samar, dan yang semisalnya …
Dan dinukil pula oleh para sahabatnya, mereka menyebutkan bahwa Abu Hanifah berkata, ‘Orang yang terjerumus dalam dosa besar maka urusannya diserahkan kepada Allah’, sebagaimana yang termaktub dalam kitab “Fiqhul Akbar” karya Abu Hanifah, “Kami tidak mengatakan bahwa orang yang beriman itu tidak membahayakan dosa-dosanya terhadap keimanannya, dan kami juga tidak mengatakan pelaku dosa besar itu masuk neraka dan kekal di neraka meskipun dia itu orang yang fasiq, … akan tetapi kami mengatakan bahwa barangsiapa beramal kebaikan dengan memenuhi syarat-syaratnya dan tidak melakukan hal-hal yang merusaknya, tidak membatalakannya dengan kekufuran dan murtad sampai dia meninggal maka Allah tidak akan menyia-nyiakan amalannya, bahklan -insya Allah- akan menerimanya; dan orang yang berbuat kemaksiatan selain syirik dan kekufuran meskipun dia belum bertaubat sampai dia meninggal dalam keadaan beriman, maka di berasa dibawah kehendak Allah, kalau Dia menghendaki maka akan mengadzabnya dan kalau tidak maka akan mengampuninya.”
5. Sebagian ahlul ilmi yang lainnya memberikan tuduhan kepada Abu Hanifah, bahwa beliau berpendapat Al-Qur’an itu makhluq.
Padahahal telah dinukil dari beliau bahwa Al-Qur’an itu adalah kalamullah dan pengucapan kita dengan Al-Qur’an adalah makhluq. Dan ini merupakan pendapat ahlul haq …,coba lihatlah ke kitab beliau Fiqhul Akbar dan Aqidah Thahawiyah …, dan penisbatan pendapat Al-Qur’an itu dalah makhluq kepada Abu Hanifah merupakan kedustaan”.
Dan di sana masih banyak lagi bentuk-bentuk penilaian negatif dan celaan yang diberikan kepada beliau, hal ini bisa dibaca dalam kitab Tarikh Baghdad juz 13 dan juga kitab al-Jarh wa at-Ta’dil Juz 8 hal 450.
Dan kalian akan mengetahui riwayat-riwayat yang banyak tentang cacian yang ditujukan kepada Abiu Hanifah -dalam Tarikh Baghdad- dan sungguh kami telah meneliti semua riwayat-riwayat tersebut, ternyata riwayat-riwayat tersebut lemah dalam sanadnya dan mudhtharib dalam maknanya. Tidak diragukan lagi bahwa merupakan cela, aib untuk ber-ashabiyyah madzhabiyyah, … dan betapa banyak daripara imamyang agung, alim yang cerdas mereka bersikap inshaf (pertengahan ) secara haqiqi. Dan apabila kalian menghendaki untuk mengetahui kedudukan riwayat-riwayat yang berkenaan dengan celaan terhadap Abu Hanifah maka bacalah kitab al-Intiqo’ karya Al-Hafizh Ibnu Abdil Barr, Jami’ul Masanid karya al-Khawaruzumi dan Tadzkiratul Hufazh karya Imam Adz-Dzahabi. Ibnu Abdil Barr berkata, “Banyak dari Ahlul Hadits – yakni yang menukil tentang Abu Hanifah dari al-Khatib (Tarikh baghdad) – melampaui batas dalam mencela Abu Hanifah, maka hal seperti itu sungguh dia menolak banyak pengkhabaran tentang Abu Hanifah dari orang-orang yang adil”
Beberapa nasehat Imam Abu Hanifah
Beliau adalah termasuk imam yang pertama-tama berpendapat wajibnya mengikuti Sunnah dan meninggalkan pendapat-pendapatnya yang menyelisihi sunnah. dan sungguh telah diriwayatkan dari Abu Hanifah oleh para sahabatnya pendapat-pendapat yang jitu dan dengan ibarat yang berbeda-beda, yang semuanya itu menunjukkan pada sesuatu yang satu, yaitu wajibnya mengambil hadits dan meninggalkan taqlid terhadap pendapat para imam yang menyelisihi hadits. Diantara nasehat beliau adalah:
a. Apabila telah shahih sebuah hadits maka hadits tersebut menjadi madzhabku
Berkata Syaikh Nashirudin Al-Albani, “Ini merupakan kesempurnaan ilmu dan ketaqwaan para imam. Dan para imam telah memberi isyarat bahwa mereka tidak mampu untuk menguasai, meliput sunnah/hadits secara keseluruhan”. Hal ini sebagaimana yang dijelaskan oleh imam Syafii, “maka terkadang diantara para imam ada yang menyelisihi sunnah yang belum atau tidak sampai kepada mereka, maka mereka memerintahkan kepada kita untuk berpegang teguh dengan sunnah dan menjadikan sunah tersebut termasuk madzhab mereka semuanya”.
b. Tidak halal bagi seseorang untuk mengambil/memakai pendapat kami selama dia tidak mengetahui dari dalil mana kami mengambil pendapat tersebut. dalam riwayat lain, haram bagi orang yang tidak mengetahui dalilku, dia berfatwa dengan pendapatku. Dan dalam riawyat lain, sesungguhnya kami adalah manusia biasa, kami berpendapat pada hari ini, dan kami ruju’ (membatalkan) pendapat tersebut pada pagi harinya. Dan dalam riwayat lain, Celaka engkau wahai Ya’qub (Abu Yusuf), janganlah engakau catat semua apa-apa yang kamu dengar dariku, maka sesungguhnya aku berpendapat pada hari ini denga suatu pendapat dan aku tinggalkan pendapat itu besok, besok aku berpendapat dengan suatu pendapat dan aku tinggalkan pendapat tersebut hari berikutnya.

Syaikh Al-Albani berkata, “Maka apabila demikian perkataan para imam terhadap orang yang tidak mengetahui dalil mereka. maka ketahuilah! Apakah perkataan mereka terhadap orang yang mengetahui dalil yang menyelisihi pendapat mereka, kemudian dia berfatwa dengan pendapat yang menyelisishi dalil tersebut? maka camkanlah kalimat ini! Dan perkataan ini saja cukup untuk memusnahkan taqlid buta, untuk itulah sebaigan orang dari para masyayikh yang diikuti mengingkari penisbahan kepada Abu Hanifah tatkala mereka mengingkari fatwanya dengan berkata “Abu Hanifah tidak tahu dalil”!.

Berkata Asy-sya’roni dalam kitabnya Al-Mizan 1/62 yang ringkasnya sebagai berikut, “Keyakinan kami dan keyakinan setiap orang yang pertengahan (tidak memihak) terhadap Abu Hanifah, bahwa seandainya dia hidup sampai dengan dituliskannya ilmu Syariat, setelah para penghafal hadits mengumpulkan hadits-haditsnya dari seluruh pelosok penjuru dunia maka Abu Hanifah akan mengambil hadits-hadits tersebut dan meninggalkan semua pendapatnya dengan cara qiyas, itupun hanya sedikit dalam madzhabnya sebagaimana hal itu juga sedikit pada madzhab-madzhab lainnya dengan penisbahan kepadanya. Akan tetapi dalil-dalil syari terpisah-pesah pada zamannya dan juga pada zaman tabi’in dan atbaut tabiin masih terpencar-pencar disana-sini. Maka banyak terjadi qiyas pada madzhabnya secara darurat kalaudibanding dengan para ulama lainnya, karena tidak ada nash dalam permasalahan-permasalahan yang diqiyaskan tersebut. berbeda dengan para imam yang lainnya, …”. Kemudia syaikh Al-Albani mengomentari pernyataan tersebut dengan perkataannya, “Maka apabila demikian halnya, hal itu merupakan udzur bagi Abu Hanifah tatkala dia menyelisihi hadits-hadits yang shahih tanpa dia sengaja – dan ini merupaka udzur yang diterima, karena Allah tidak membebani manusia yang tidak dimampuinya -, maka tidak boleh mencela padanya sebagaimana yang dilakukan sebagian orang jahil, bahkan wajib beradab dengannya karena dia merupakan salah satu imam dari imam-imam kaum muslimin yang dengan mereka terjaga agama ini. …”.
c. Apabila saya mengatakan sebuah pendapat yang menyelisihi kitab Allah dan hadits Rasulullah yang shahih, maka tinggalkan perkataanku.
Wafatnya
Pada zaman kerajaan Bani Abbasiyah tepatnya pada masa pemerintahan Abu Ja’far Al-Manshur yaitu raja yang ke-2, Abu Hanifah dipanggil kehadapannya untuk diminta menjadi qodhi (hakim), akan tetapi beliau menolak permintaan raja tersebut – karena Abu Hanifah hendak menjahui harta dan kedudukan dari sulthan (raja) – maka dia ditangkap dan dijebloskan kedalam penjara dan wafat dalam penjara.
Dan beliau wafat pada bulan Rajab pada tahun 150 H dengan usia 70 tahun, dan dia dishalatkan banyak orang bahkan ada yang meriwayatkan dishalatkan sampai 6 kloter.
(diambil dari majalah Fatawa)

Daftar Pustaka:
1. Tarikhul Baghdad karya Abu Bakar Ahmad Al-Khatib Al-Baghdadi cetakan Dar al-Kutub Ilmiyah Beirut
2. Siyarul A’lamin Nubala’ karya Al-Imam Syamsudin Muhammad bin Ahmad bin Utsman Adz-Dzahabi cetakan ke - 7 terbitan Dar ar-Risalah Beirut
3. Tadzkiratul Hufazh karya Al-Imam Syamsudin Muhammad bin Ahmad bin Utsman Adz-Dzahabi terbitan Dar al-Kutub Ilmiyah Beirut
4. Al-Bidayah wa an-Nihayah karya Ibnu Katsir cetakan Maktabah Darul Baz Beirut
5. Kitabul Jarhi wat Ta’dil karya Abu Mumahhan Abdurrahman bin Abi Hatim bin Muhammad Ar-Razi terbitan Dar al-Kutub Ilmiyah Beirut
6. Shifatu Shalatin Nabi karya Syaikh Nashirudin Al-Albani cetakan Maktabah Al-Ma’arif Riyadh

Ja'far Sadiq

2009-10-15T22:56:00.000-07:00

Ja ʿ jauh bin Muhammad Al-Shadiq (Arab: جعفر بن محمد الصادق) (702-765 M atau 17 Rabiul Awwal 83 AH - 25 Syawal 148 H) diyakini oleh Syi'ah Imamiyah dan Ismailiyah umat Islam untuk menjadi imam keenam (untuk Nizari, kelima), atau pemimpin spiritual dan penerus nabi Islam Muhammad. Dia adalah Imam yang diakui oleh Syi'ah Dua Belas Imam Ismailiyah dan sekte-sekte dan perselisihan yang ingin berhasil dia menuju ke sebuah divisi Syi'ah dalam Islam.

Al-Shadiq dikatakan sangat dihormati oleh Syiah dan Sunni Muslim untuk beasiswa besar Islam, karakter yang saleh, dan kontribusi akademik. Meskipun ia mungkin paling terkenal sebagai pendiri fiqh Syiah, yang dikenal sebagai yurisprudensi Ja'fari, ia punya banyak prestasi lain. Selain juga sebagai seorang Imam pada rantai Syiah, kehadirannya juga rahmat Sufi Naqshbandi. Ia adalah seorang polymath: seorang astronom, alkimiawan, Imam, Islam, teolog Islam, penulis, filsuf, dokter, fisikawan dan ilmuwan . Dia juga guru kimia yang terkenal, Jabir bin Hayyan (Geber), dan Abu Hanifah, pendiri Madh'hab Sunni.

Kelahiran dan kehidupan keluarga

Ja'far ash-Shadiq lahir di Madinah dari Ummu Farwah binti Qasim bin Muhammad bin Abu Bakar pada tanggal 20 April 702 AD (17 Rabi 'al-Awwal, 83 Anno Hegirae). Dia memiliki ulang tahun yang sama seperti Muhammad.

Ja'far Al-Shadiq memiliki tiga gelar; mereka adalah As-Shadiq, Al-Fadhil, dan At-Tahir. Ayahnya, Muhammad al-Baqir (Shi'ah kelima Imam), jauh lebih bahagia dan senang dengan kelahiran putranya. Ibunya, Ummu Farwa, adalah putri agung Muhammad bin Abu Bakar, yang adalah anak dari khalifah Abu Bakr Siddiq.

Pernikahan dan keturunan

Jaf'ar menikahi Fathimah Al-Hasan, seorang keturunan Imam Hasan bin Ali, yang melahirkan dua anak laki-laki Ismail bin Ja'far (Imam Ismailiyah-menunjuk) dan Abd-Allah.

Setelah kematian istrinya Al-Shadiq membeli budak asal Afrika, Hamidah Khatun (bahasa Arab: همده خاتون), membebaskannya, terlatih sebagai cendekiawan Islam, dan menikah dengan [rujukan?]. Ia melahirkan Musa al-Kazim (Dua Belas Imam-menunjuk) dan dihormati oleh Shī'ah, terutama oleh perempuan, atas kebijaksanaan.

Pencapaian ilmiah

Sebagai seorang anak, Ja'far Al-Shadiq belajar di bawah kakeknya, Zayn al-Abidin. Setelah kematian kakeknya, ia belajar di bawah dan menemani ayahnya, Muhammad al-Baqir, sampai Muhammad al-Baqir meninggal pada 733.

Ja'far Al-Shadiq menjadi fasih di dalam ilmu-ilmu Islam, termasuk Hadis, Sunnah, dan Al Qur'an. Selain pengetahuannya tentang ilmu-ilmu Islam, Ja'far Al-Shadiq juga seorang ahli dalam ilmu-ilmu alam, matematika, filsafat, astronomi, anatomi, alkimia dan mata pelajaran lain.

Alkemis Islam terkemuka, Abu Musa Jabir bin Hayyan, dikenal di Eropa sebagai Geber, adalah Ja'far Al-Shadiq mahasiswa paling terkemuka. Ja'far Al-Shadiq dikenal karena pandangan liberal belajar, dan sangat ingin berdebat dengan ulama dari berbagai agama dan kepercayaan yang berbeda.

Abu Hanifah adalah seorang ulama dan ahli fikih Islam. Dia adalah seorang murid dari Ja'far Al-Shadiq, seperti Imam Malik bin Anas, yang mengutip 12 hadis dari Imam Ja'far Sadiq dalam Al-Muwaththa terkenal. [8]

* Para sarjana diyakini telah bersandar secara ekstensif dari Ja'far Al-Shadiq:

1. Jabir bin Hayyan - yang dikenal di Eropa sebagai Geber, seorang ahli kimia yang hebat.
2. Musa al-Kadzim - putranya, Shi'ah ketujuh menurut Imam Twelvers
3. Ismail bin Ja'far - putranya, Shi'ah ketujuh menurut Imam Ismailiyah

* Ulama yang juga dihadiri Ja'far Al-Shadiq kuliah atau belajar dari dia:

1. Abu Hanifah - pendiri mazhab Hanafi.
2. Malik bin Anas - pendiri mazhab Maliki.

* Lain yang kuliah dihadiri oleh Ja'far Al-Shadiq:

1. Washil bin Atha - pendiri aliran pemikiran Mu'tazili.

] Fikih

Ja'far ash-Shadiq Ja'fari yurisprudensi yang dikembangkan pada waktu yang hampir bersamaan dengan rekan fiqh Sunni hukum sedang dikodifikasi. Itu dibedakan dari hukum Sunni "pada hal-hal mengenai warisan, pajak keagamaan, perdagangan, dan status pribadi."

Bawah penguasa Umayyah

Ja'far Al-Shadiq tinggal di kekerasan kali. [Rujukan?] Ja'far Al-Shadiq dianggap oleh banyak pengikut Ali bin Abi Thalib menjadi imam Syi'ah keenam Namun, Shi'ahs dianggap bidah dan pemberontak oleh khalifah Umayyah. Banyak dari Ja'far Al-Shadiq kerabat telah meninggal di tangan Bani Umayyah. Tak lama setelah kematian ayahnya, Ja'far Al-Shadiq paman, Zaid bin Ali memimpin pemberontakan melawan Bani Umayyah. Ja'far Al-Shadiq tidak berpartisipasi, tapi banyak dari sanak saudaranya, termasuk pamannya, tewas, dan yang lainnya dihukum oleh Khalifah Bani Umayyah. [Rujukan?] Ada pemberontakan lain selama tahun-tahun terakhir ini Umayyah, sebelum Bani Abbasiyah berhasil menangkap dan menetapkan khalifah dinasti Abbasiyah pada tahun 750 Masehi, ketika Ja'far Al-Shadiq berusia empat puluh delapan tahun. [rujukan?]

Banyak faksi pemberontak berusaha meyakinkan Ja'far ash-Shadiq untuk mendukung klaim mereka. Ja'far Al-Shadiq menghindari permintaan mereka secara eksplisit maju tanpa klaim sendiri. Ia berkata kepada mereka dibakar surat (surat menjanjikan kepadanya khalifah) berkomentar, "Orang ini bukan dari saya dan tidak bisa memberikan apa yang ada di provinsi Allah". Ja'far Al-Shadiq's bijaksana diam pada pandangan benar dikatakan telah didirikan Taqiyya sebagai doktrin Syi'ah. Taqiyya mengatakan bahwa hal itu dapat diterima untuk menyembunyikan seseorang benar jika dengan mengungkapkan pendapat mereka, satu menempatkan diri sendiri atau orang lain dalam bahaya. [Rujukan?]

Insiden dan kesulitan, yang datang ke dalam kehidupan manusia dapat, mengukur dan mengetahui sejauh mana energi dan iman. Kesulitan, yang dipotong di kehidupan Ja'far Al-Shadiq dan kesabaran dan kesabaran, yang, ia menunjukkan ke arah mereka, menerangi kepribadian dan nilai. Apapun mereka (musuh) disalahgunakan dan menggodanya ia menunjukkan kesabaran dan kesabaran dan mengingatkan mereka. Dia tidak pernah mengutuk atau menggunakan bahasa kotor tentang mereka. [Rujukan?]
[sunting] Di bawah penguasa Abbasiyah

Penguasa Abbasiyah yang baru, yang telah naik ke tampuk kekuasaan atas dasar klaim bahwa mereka keturunan dari paman Muhammad 'Abbas bin' Abd al-Muththalib, yang sangat curiga terhadap Ja'far, yang banyak dianggap memiliki klaim yang lebih baik kekhalifahan. Ja'far ini diawasi dengan ketat dan kadang-kadang, memenjarakan untuk memotong hubungan dengan para pengikutnya. Ja'far mengalami penganiayaan dengan sabar dan melanjutkan studi dan menulis di mana pun ia menemukan dirinya.

Dia meninggal pada tanggal 14 Desember, 765. Ia diracuni oleh Al-Mansur. Ia dimakamkan di Madinah, di Jannatul terkenal Baqee 'kuburan.
Suksesi

Setelah Ja'far ash-Shadiq kematian pada masa pemerintahan Abbasiyah, berbagai kelompok Syi'ah diorganisir secara rahasia oposisi terhadap pemerintahan mereka. Di antara mereka adalah para pendukung Ismailiyah proto-masyarakat, di antaranya yang paling menonjol adalah kelompok yang disebut "Mubārakiyyah".

Ada Hadis yang menyatakan bahwa Ismail bin Ja'far "al-Mubarak" [rujukan?] Akan menjadi pewaris Imamah, serta negara yang Musa al-Kadzim adalah untuk menjadi penerus . Namun, Ismail predeceased ayahnya.

Beberapa mengklaim Ismail Shī'ah tidak meninggal, melainkan bersembunyi, tapi proto-kelompok Ismailiyah menerima kematian dan oleh karena itu bahwa putra tertuanya, Muhammad bin Ismail, sekarang Imam. Muhammad tetap berhubungan dengan ini "Mubārakiyyah" kelompok, yang sebagian besar tinggal di Kūfah.

Sebaliknya, Twelvers tidak percaya bahwa Ismail bin Ja'far pernah diberi nash ( "penunjukan Imamah") [10] [11], tetapi mereka mengakui bahwa ini adalah keyakinan populer di kalangan orang-orang pada saat [ 12]. Kedua Syaikh Tusi [10] dan Syaikh Al-Sadūq [11] tidak percaya bahwa penunjukan ilahi telah diubah (disebut Bada '), dengan alasan bahwa jika hal-hal yang sama pentingnya dengan Imamah menjadi subyek perubahan, maka dasar-dasar keyakinan dasar juga harus akan berubah. Jadi Twelvers menerima bahwa Musa al-Kazim adalah satu-satunya anak laki-laki yang pernah ditunjuk untuk Imamah.

Ini adalah titik awal perbedaan antara Twelvers dan proto-proto-Ismailiyah. Ini perselisihan atas pewaris yang tepat Ja'far telah menjadi titik pertikaian antara dua kelompok sejak saat itu. Perpecahan di antara Mubārakiyyah datang bersama kematian Muhammad. Mayoritas kelompok menyangkal kematian; mereka mengakui dirinya sebagai Imam Mahdi. Minoritas percaya dalam kematian-Nya dan akhirnya akan muncul di kemudian hari sebagai Ismailiyah Fatimiyah, leluhur kepada semua kelompok modern.
[sunting] Kutipan

* Barangsiapa menyerang sebuah masalah tanpa pengetahuan memotong hidungnya sendiri. [Rujukan?]
* Akal adalah petunjuk orang percaya. [Rujukan?]
* Kesempurnaan intelek adalah dalam tiga (hal): kerendahan hati untuk Tuhan, baik kepastian, dan berdiam diri kecuali untuk kebaikan. [Rujukan?]
* Ketidaktahuan dilakukan dalam tiga (hal): Kesombongan, intensitas perselisihan, dan ketidaktahuan tentang Allah. [Rujukan?]
* Tentu saja, pengetahuan adalah kunci dan kuncinya adalah pertanyaan. [Rujukan?]
* Ketika orang percaya menjadi marah, kemarahannya tidak boleh membawanya keluar dari kebenaran, dan ketika ia menjadi puas, kepuasannya tidak boleh membawanya ke kepalsuan. [Rujukan?]
* Beberapa perilaku yang bodoh adalah: jawabannya sebelum ia mendengar, oposisi sebelum ia mengerti, dan penghakiman dengan apa yang ia tidak tahu. [Rujukan?]

[sunting] Anekdot

Seseorang pernah bertanya kepada Ja'far Al-Shadiq untuk menunjukkan kepadanya Allah. Imam menjawab, "Lihat matahari." Pria itu menjawab bahwa ia tidak dapat melihat matahari karena terlalu terang.

Ja'far Al-Shadiq menjawab: "Jika Anda tidak dapat melihat yang diciptakan, bagaimana Anda bisa mengharapkan untuk melihat sang pencipta?"